English literature

Anglo-Saxon Literature

Usually the beginning of English literature dates back to the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period .

The first major monuments of Anglo-Saxon literature - Latin monuments - belong to representatives of the clergy:

• Aldgelm , who lived in the second half of the 7th century, author of ornate prose and poetry
• Misfortune Honorable ( 672 - 735 ) - author of the famous "Church History of the Angles"
• Alkuin (died 804 ) - a learned monk, a connoisseur of grammar , rhetoric , dialectics , who moved at the age of 60 to the court of Charlemagne .

As for the oldest monuments of the Anglo-Saxon language , large poetic works reach us from the 11th century , except for monuments of a documentary nature, chronicles, texts of laws. Writers from the Christian clergy processed some pagan poems ( Vidsid , Deor's Complaint).

The most remarkable monument of ancient English poetry is the poem about Beowulf . It describes the events related to the first half of the VI century , the era of the struggle of the Franks with the Goths .

The Golden Age of Anglo-Saxon literature before the Norman invasion — the era of Alfred the Great , the victor of the Danes, devastated Britain for almost two centuries. Alfred did a lot to restore the ruined culture, to raise education, he himself was a writer and translator (he translated, in particular, into the English-Saxon language “Church History” of Troubles, written in Latin).

Anglo-Norman Literature

In the second half of the XI century, England was subjected to a new invasion of the Normans. It falls under the rule of the Normans , who for several centuries affirm in England the rule of the Norman dialect of the French language and French literature. A long period begins, known in history as the period of Anglo-Norman literature.

In the first century after the Norman invasion, literature in the Anglo-Saxon language almost disappeared. And only after a century did the literary monuments of church contents appear again in this language and later secular ones, which were translations of French works. Thanks to this confusion of languages, again among the educated society, the Latin language is of great importance.

The period of French domination left an important mark in the subsequent history of English literature, which, according to some scholars, was more connected with the artistic techniques and style of French literature of the Norman period than with the ancient Anglo-Saxon literature, from which it was artificially torn off.

Social Protest Literature

In the middle of the XIII century , poetry of political and social protest appeared, scourging the vices of the nobility and clergy, protesting against taxes, against abuses of officials and even the king, covering his favorites and dissolving parliament for this purpose. This satirical literature, arising from the midst of the people, finds its completion in the 14th century in Langland 's poem “A Vision of Peter the Plower,” which, although written in a moralizing spirit, is not devoid of revolutionary significance.

With the aggravation of the social struggle, literature in the 14th century gains great public interest.

By the fourteenth century , a new English language was being formed, combining the elements of the Anglo-Saxon and French languages. The Normans played a large role in the distribution of Celtic stories ( "Tales of King Arthur" ) throughout European poetry. Already around 1300, the English priest Lyamon used these tales for his poem Brutus.

Chaucer and Wycliff

The greatest English writer of the fourteenth century was Jeffrey Chaucer ( 1340 - 1400 ), author of the famous Canterbury Tales . Chaucer simultaneously completes the Anglo-Norman era and opens the story of new English literature.

To all the richness and diversity of thoughts and feelings, the subtleties and complexity of emotional experiences that characterize the previous era, he gave expression in English, completing the experience of the past and capturing the aspirations of the future. Among the English dialects, he affirmed the dominance of the London dialect, the language spoken in this large shopping center, where the king’s residence and both universities were located .

But not only he was the founder of the new English language. Chaucer did a common thing with his famous contemporary John Wycliffe ( 1320 - 1384 ). Wycliffe adjoins accusatory literature directed against the clergy, but he, the forerunner of the Reformation , goes further, translates the Bible into English, addresses the people in his struggle against the papacy. Wycliffe and Chaucer, with their literary activities, arouse interest in the earthly nature of man, in personality.

In the next century, there is great interest in living folk poetry, which already existed in the XIII and XIV centuries. But in the 15th century, this poetry shows a particularly active life, and the most ancient examples of it that have survived to our time belong to this century. Ballads about Robin Hood were very popular.

Renaissance Ideals in Literature

In the sixteenth century, the development of capitalism is taking quick steps. Landowners prefer the wool industry to land. Breeding sheep leads to landlessness of peasants. The discovery of America , the growth of industry and cities are increasingly pushing England to fight for primacy on the seas and will soon enable Shakespeare in the "Venetian Merchant" to talk about a wealthy merchant whose ships ship goods around the world.

At the beginning of the XVI century and at the beginning of the next there are two great literary monuments: this is Utopia by Thomas More and Novum Organum by Francis Bacon .

Thomas More is a typical representative of English humanism . His “Utopia” is a public organization built in the spirit of the ideals of humanism. Its goal is human happiness, the welfare of the entire community. He is alien to medieval spiritualism , the consolations that the Catholic Church offered behind the tomb instead of earthly suffering. He desires joy here on earth. Therefore, in his community there is no property, compulsory labor prevails for all its members, work in the city and in the countryside alternates, complete religious tolerance is established, thanks to the perfect organization of society, there are no crimes, etc.

Bacon's work is a book from which one can lead the development of positive thought. The author proceeds from observation and experience as sources of knowledge of the truth, believes that he does not know what lies beyond them.

XVI century - the heyday of English humanism , which arose here later than in Italy , met with the Reformation . Classical literature and Italian poetry have a great influence on English literature.

The shape of the sonnet , introduced by Thomas Wyatt and followed by a more talentedly developed Earl of Surrey, is flourishing .

John Lily writes the novel Euphoes, which marked the beginning of euphism . The best novel in this style is Rosalind by Thomas Lodge .

The shepherd’s novel, characteristic of the Renaissance, is widely spread in England. One of the most famous novels of this kind — Arcadia — was written by Philip Sydney . The fame of Sydney, which was imitated by dozens of poets for a century, was shared by Edmund Spencer , the author of the famous “ Fairy Queen ”, a poem that attracted his contemporaries not by the depth of content, but by the bizarre motleyness and brightness of colors, the intricate and complex intrigue, the extraordinary fantastic plot, the magnificence of the paintings and images.

Theatrical works

But the greatest splendor of English literature of the Renaissance reaches in the field of theater. In the XV century, the medieval mystery becomes a frozen form and does not reveal a tendency to further development, thanks to the reformation, which supplants it, contributing to the development of other dramatic genres.

Particularly popular are:

• "Morality" used to fight the papacy and denouncing the nobles and merchants ("Satire" Lindsay )
• scenes from scenes from a sacred history. The famous author of such works is Bel
• “Interlude”, comic ideas that gradually supplanted the mysteries and morality; especially known as interlude author John Gaywood
• “Masks” are magnificent, very complex representations that combine mythology, allegory and extravaganza, accompanied by symbolic dances and music, the forerunners of ballet and opera (“masks” were talentedly written by Samuel Daniel ).

Classical comedy and tragedy are beginning to influence the formation of the English theater. This influence penetrates through schools and universities, where teachers and students write and play plays in classical forms, especially in imitation of Plavt and Seneca . The first original classic tragedy was published by Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton in 1562 (The Humpback, or Ferrex and Porrex).

Thus, the English national theater incorporated the most diverse forms, from the mysteries to the classical theater and forms developed in Italy and France. In England, the theater was really a folk art form, open to everyone, it was both a newspaper and a club.

At the same time, professional troupes of actors appeared. These troupes are persecuted by the city authorities, who regarded the actors as homeless vagabonds, fearing disturbance in order and crowding. The persecution was especially intensified under the influence of Puritan preachers agitating against “sinful” entertainments. Actors who played in taverns looked for protection from noble nobles and attributed to one or another aristocrat. The courtyard and taverns, where the lower strata of the people gathered, were the main consumers of the theater.

The first royal patent was granted to the troupe of Count Leicester in 1574 , the first theater was built in London in 1576 .

Elizabethan era

In the era of Elizabeth, the theater reaches such a peak that history does not know, meets the tastes of all classes of society, depicting the tragic moments of English history, the tragedy of kings and aristocracy, the family dramas of the bourgeoisie, and the rude manners of the urban lower classes, introducing both jokes and humor, equally captivating and the aristocracy and the urban crowd. Most playwrights of the Elizabethan era are marked with a seal of originality and talent, reflecting the prevailing tastes of a particular population group:

• Lily [1554-1606]
• Robert Green [1560-1592]
• Christopher Marlowe [1563-1593]
• Ben Johnson [1574-1637]
• Webster [1575-1624]

All of these names were obscured by the name of Shakespeare . Shakespeare was the deepest exponent of the main tendency of the Renaissance, its interests in earthly human nature, in the human person, in her passions and feelings, in an initiative, enterprising person, struggling for a better place in life. Shakespeare is a poet of the aristocracy during the period of the beginning of the shaking of her power, her psyche, at a time when she is under pressure from the aggressive merchant bourgeoisie (The Venetian Merchant). Human passions -

• love ( Romeo and Juliet )
• Jealousy ( Othello , Winter's Tale)
• love of power ( Macbeth ),
• vengeance and greed ("The Merchant of Venice "),
• tyranny
• ingratitude,
• remorse (" King Lear "),
• melancholy,
• thirst for justice ( Hamlet )

- illuminated by the ingenious playwright so deeply that until recently, the Shakespearean theater has remained unsurpassed material for acting.

Shakespeare's rival, Ben Johnson, paid tribute to the classical theater, which arose under the influence of the humanistic movement, interest in ancient antiquity. Classical theater was widespread among educated and scholarly circles, but it could not satisfy the mass audience, which Shakespeare carried away with the variety of his theater, which went from folk drama, although it did not escape the influence of classicism; “Julius Caesar”, “ Anthony and Cleopatra ”, “Coriolanus” - tragedies with antique plots, but passed through the prism of Shakespeare's time, which posed problems of the greatest importance.

Such was the English theater under Elizabeth and her successors - James I and Charles I. After the victory of the bourgeois revolution of 1648, which executed the king, the English theater was again persecuted, and literature became severe. Poetry gave way to prose. The fierce political struggle led to the disappearance of literature for entertainment and gave impetus to the development of political literature. The writers and thinkers of the era of Cromwell (who ruled until 1658) and the Restoration — John Milton (1608–1674), Thomas Hobbes (1578–1679), John Locke (1632–1704) posed the most important problems of democracy, church, education, and freedom of the press, religious tolerance, etc. It was this enlightening movement that in the next century had a powerful influence on the French philosophers, from where it spread throughout Europe. Milton, defending the revolution against the monarchy, released "The Defense of the English People" and the famous "Areopagitics" - a wonderful pamphlet in defense of freedom of the press. In his poem “Paradise Lost”, he was a representative of Puritan ideals, spoke about the beginning of the world, about the struggle between God and Satan, about the expulsion of the first people from paradise, thus again recreating biblical tales, transforming them according to the ideas of the Renaissance. Another pathetic work of the Puritan movement is The Pilgrim's Journey by John Banyan (1628–1688).

Locke denied the innate ideas and the only source of all knowledge declared the impressions that our feelings receive from external objects. Following Milton, Locke anticipated Rousseau 's theory of a social contract and the right of the people to refuse to obey the authorities if it violates the law. In the Cromwell era, the theater froze, classical traditions were maintained only among the persecuted supporters of the royal house. After the Restoration, the theater reopened, funny comedy of manners with not always decent content appeared ( Wicherly , Congreve and others), gallant literature was revived and, finally, French-type classicism arose. His representative was John Dryden (1631-1700) - a typical unprincipled poet of the dissolved court society of restoration, the unfortunate copycat of Cornel and Racine , who strictly defended the three unities and in general all the classical rules.

After 1688, with the establishment of a constitution, the tone of literature was set by the bourgeoisie, whose influence is clearly felt both in novels and on stage. The new consumer demands his literature, portrayal of family virtues, honest merchants, sensitivity, nature, etc. He is not affected by the tales of classical heroes, of the exploits of the aristocratic ancestors of the court society. He needs a satire on loose secular manners. Moralizing and satirical magazines appear - “ Chatterbox ”, “ Spectator ”, “Guardian” - of Style [1671-1729] and Addison [1672-1719], with talented everyday essays revealing luxury, emptiness, vanity, ignorance and other vices of the then society . The didactic, satirical and moral character is exemplary of the classical poetry of Pop [1688-1744], the author of “Experience about Man”. England gave an impetus not only to the liberating ideas of the French encyclopedists, but also laid the foundation for moralizing sentimental literature, that novel of morals that spread throughout Europe. Самюэль Ричардсон [1689-1761], автор «Памелы», «Клариссы» и «Грандиссона» выводит добродетельных мещанских девушек и противопоставляет их распущенным аристократкам, идеализирует мещанские добродетели и заставляет исправляться развращённых представителей жуирующей золотой молодёжи.

Stern writes his Sentimental Journey and Tristram Shandy. Fielding [1707-1754] is the author of “Sir Joseph Adrews” and “Tom Jones”, less sentimental than Richardson, but just as moralizing, as attentive to family relationships, observant realist, covering customs and cities and villages. Goldsmith [1728-1774], the author of The Wickfield Priest, and a number of other writers create a real sensitive epic of the labors and days of bourgeois society. The exponent of these moods in the lyrics is Thomson [1700-1748], author of The Seasons. And in the drama, England is a pioneer and creates not only a sentimental theater, but also its theory. The new playwrights - George Lillo [1693-1739], the author of The London Merchant, depicting the moving story of the recovered young merchant, Cumberland, Edward Moore destroyed three unities, abolished the poetic form and solemn language of classical tragedy and proved that not only sovereigns and nobles suffer unhappiness and suffering - ideas that formed the basis of Diderot 's thoughts about drama. Daniel Defoe, with his illustrious novel Robinson Crusoe, is the most complete ideologist of the middle bourgeoisie, expresses her desires and the idea that she has about herself and her place in the state. Jonathan Swift [1667-1745], in Gulliver’s famous Travels, caustically ridicules modern English society.

The second half of the XVIII century. in general, it is rich in various talents, covering the psychological shifts from different sides, which accompanied the growth of the bourgeoisie, which gradually took up the dominant position. Among others, it should be noted T. Smolletta [1721-1771], the author of adventure novels - “The Adventures of Roderick Random”, “The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle”, which combine elements of classicism with the artistic techniques of the Spanish Picaresci, with romantic fiction and at the same time with real images, - novels, in which there is a lot of humor, satire and even bitterness of a person who is not spoiled by luck. Further, Sheridan [1751-1816], author of the famous comedy School of Slander, a witty and evil satire on social vices. Among the poets of this era, two are major predecessors of romanticism: Collins [1721-1759], in Odes, whose romantic fiction, rich and varied content, tenderness of feelings and elegiac moods do not quite get on with the Pindar classical tradition that restrains his free inspiration; Thomas Gray [1716-1771], author of elegies, whose classical sense of proportion without prejudice regulates the impulse of free inspiration. Even more features of the approaching romanticism are reflected in the novels of Mackenzie [1745-1831] (“Man of Feelings”, “Julia de Rubinier”). Mackenzie imitated Stern, Richardson and Rousseau, but brought into his work that confusion of opposite feelings, that complexity of experiences that would later become characteristic of romanticism. Walpole's Otranto Castle [1717-1797] is already a true Gothic romance with medieval castles, their secrets and eerie moods. Clara Reeve [1729-1807] left the Walpol school. Her novel (The Old English Baron) has more natural feelings; there are also elements of Richardson moralizing. Following her is Anna Radcliffe , who can be considered the first representative of romanticism. Novels: Castles Altin and Denbein, Secrets of Udolfo, Italian, and others - a typical genre of romantic romance with dungeons, daggers, secret doors, sensitive, impeccable girls who are chased by bandits, noble loyal servants, etc. In The "Italian" anticipated the type of Byron hero.

Romanticism - like schools - did not exist in England. There was not, as in France and Germany, a group of writers united on a romantic platform. Nevertheless, a number of typical signs of romanticism that distinguished English literature in the first decades of the 19th century give the right to speak of a romantic trend in England. These signs were: a protest against classical rationality, especially against classical rules, and their opposition to individual poetic freedom; further, interest in nationality and antiquity, in the Middle Ages - in contrast to Antiquity, which was the main content of classicism; interest in exoticism, which attracted the attention of English romantics to Scotland, a country of ancient folk songs and legends. Nature and the village flow in a flood of English romantic poetry. Finally, revolutionary moods, a fascination with the French revolution, and political radicalism play a large role in English poetry of the romantic period. The village singer, Republican, and fan of the French Revolution was Robert Burns [1759-1796].

Godwin [1756-1836] in his novel "The Adventures of Caleb Williams" and other writings defends the most revolutionary ideas of his time, not only in the field of politics, but also in the field of education and marriage, goes ahead of the then revolutionary English thought. The so-called "Lake School" (from the residence around the lakes) includes a number of poets. Of these, Wordsworth [1770-1850] was the head of the school. A dreamy poet in love with nature, a poet of small phenomena that he knew how to make sublime and touching, he, together with his friend Coleridge [1772-1834], was a representative of that trend in romanticism, which, along with love for nature, introduced a simple, artless language, images of patriarchal antiquity, contemplation and daydreaming. The third poet of the lake school - Sauti [1774-1843] wrote in the spirit of his friends, adding fantastic pictures of exotic countries of Mexico, India, Arabia to the idyllic images of lake poetry. And the poets of the lake school were carried away by the revolution, but not for long. Wordsworth and Coleridge traveled to Germany, where they were influenced by German romantic idealism and ended their journey with pure contemplation.

Next to the populist romanticism of the lake school, the greatest poet of the Byron era [1788-1824] was a representative of the revolutionary aristocratic romance. Despising the society of high society, with which he was connected by his origin, having divorced himself from his class, not seeing anything attractive in the representatives of capital, greedy and corrupt merchants, Byron in his youth burst into a fiery speech in defense of the workers, but after that he did not return to this question, to all his life he remained a declassified aristocrat, a rebellious individualist revolutionary, a singer of unsatisfied disappointed natures, starting with mysterious demonic wanderers and robbers (Giaur, Lara, etc.). The same image is deepened in Childe Harold, which has become the subject of wide imitation in European poetry. He graduated from Byron with a protest against the universe and world order in his atheistic tragedies (Manfred and Cain). Towards the end of his life, Byron came close to political and social satire (Don Juan, Bronze Age). Extreme individualism, a feeling of dissatisfaction, attraction to the East and exotic countries, love of nature and loneliness, dreams of the past at ruins and monuments - all this makes Byron a poet of English romanticism, and his angry accusatory protests against all forms of violence and exploitation, its connection with Italian carbonaries and the struggle for the liberation of Greece made him a singer of freedom in the eyes of the European intelligentsia. His friend Percy Bysshe Shelley [1792-1822], a brilliant lyric poet, also an aristocrat, like Byron combines in his poetry the world of fantastic romance with revolutionary protest against the emerging bourgeois-capitalist society. In his poem The Queen Mab, he portrays this society where everything is “publicly sold in the market”, where, with the help of severe hunger, the owner drives his slaves under the yoke of wage labor. Shelley is also a romantic romanticist in his other poems (Laon and Tsitna, Unchained Prometheus, etc.). His wife, Mary Shelley , the author of Frankenstein, is the pioneer of the scientist’s responsibility. Walter Scott [1771-1831] discovers, like the two great poets, a tendency toward antiquity. He was the creator of a historical novel ( Aivengo , Rob Roy , Quentin Dorward , Templars, etc.), in which he was able to combine credibility and realism with rich romantic fiction and portray the most dramatic moments in the national history of Scotland and England.

In the first third of the XIX century. the first stage of the struggle between the nobility and the industrial bourgeoisie is coming to an end, which is becoming increasingly master of the situation. The struggle against the corn laws , Chartism, and the speeches of the working class, which imperiously declare their demands, push back feudal romance and patriarchal-dreamy poetry into the background. The city with its practical interests, the growing bourgeoisie, the beginning of the social struggle between it and the working class become the main content of English literature, and realism becomes its predominant form. Instead of a medieval castle - a factory city, instead of distant antiquities - a vibrant modern industrial life, instead of fantastic images of inventive imagination - an accurate, almost photographic, image of reality. Bulwer-Lytton [1803-1873], still continuing the traditions of romanticism, an aristocrat by origin, filling his novels with transformations, miracles and criminality, however, leaves us with a number of literary documents of social significance that depict the process of impoverishment and decay of the nobility (novels - “Pelgam” , “Night and Morning”, etc.).

Dickens [1812-1870], the most illustrious writer of this era, depicts a broad picture of the life of bourgeois-capitalist society in his famous novels: “Hard Times”, “ David Copperfield ”, “Dombey and Son”, “Pickwick Club” , “Nikolai Nikklby” ”And others, creates a gallery of types of capitalist. The petty-bourgeois, humane, intellectual point of view of Dickens prevents him from taking the side of the revolutionary part of the working class. He gives stunning pictures of the dryness, greed, cruelty, ignorance and selfishness of the capitalists, but he writes to teach the exploiters and does not think about organizing the forces of the exploited. His goal is to touch human hearts with a spectacle of suffering, and not to arouse hatred and call for rebellion. More embittered, more sarcastic and cruel in his criticism of the nobility-bourgeois society Thackeray [1811-1863], author of the novels “Vanity Fair”, “Pendennis”. The author does not see a way out. He is full of pessimism and annoyance. He, like Dickens, is unable to understand the liberating role of the beginning revolutionary labor movement. The oscillating petty-bourgeois thought, as always oscillating between big capital and the working-class movement, was looking for compromise ways. Kingsley [1819-1875] in his novels “Yeast” and “Alton Locke” portrays the horrors of exploitation and need, but sees salvation in Christian socialism, in the “Spirit of God”, in repentant rich people who turned to charity. Disraeli [1805-1881], subsequently the famous Lord Beaconsfield , leader of the Tories (novels by Sibyll and others), portraying in vivid colors the vices of bourgeois-aristocratic society and the misery of peasants and workers, speaks negatively against the revolution and sees saviors in the face of energetic and active aristocrats, taking on the cause of the dispensation of national welfare. Not only the novel, but also lyric poetry is inspired by social themes, and the main question put forward by the era, the question of the exploitation of the working class by capital, is resolved in the spirit of vague humanity and moral improvement. Poets like Thomas Hood [1799-1845] or Ebenezer Elliot (see ) [1781-1849], in their poems depict certain moments of the hard existence of workers and urban poverty, create songs against the laws of the grain, give images of workers brought by poverty to prostitution and suicides. But their positive ideals boil down to charity: to some lady who had accomplished her duty through an edifying dream and devoted her life to alleviating the fate of the poor.

The author of the work, Lewis Carroll, who wrote the fairy tale Alice in Wonderland and Alice in the looking glass, does not belong to the literature of realism.

As you approach the end of the XIX century. in European, in particular in English literature, the realistic and social direction begins to give way to the reviving ideas of individualism and aesthetics. Instead of militant capitalists, working their way through struggle and energy, setting up enterprises, instead of Dombey and Gradgrand, those representatives of the bourgeoisie who inherited their capital, did not go through the harsh school of life, who can enjoy the heritage of their fathers, became lovers and connoisseurs arts, buyers of expensive paintings and graceful volumes of poetry. Literature of refined experiences, fleeting impressions flourishes. Individualism, pure art, eroticism, a cult of moods are the hallmarks of late-century literature. True, the main theme of the era - the organization of society, the abolition of exploitation, the position of the working class - occupies a large place in literature, but the socialism of the end of the century is aesthetic socialism. John Ruskin [1819-1900] proceeds from the ideal of a beautiful life, calls society to the old patriarchal craft forms of production and rebels against industrialism and capitalism. It inspires a school of artists known by the name of the Pre-Raphaelites , among which we see Rossetti [1828-1882] and William Morris [1834-1896], the author of the novels “John Bol Pain” and “Izvestia from Nowhere”, a defender of socialism and at the same time passionate esthete, together with Rosseti who sought the ideals of beauty in past centuries, who dreamed of provoking a social revolution through the aesthetic education of workers. Next to the Pre-Raphaelites - Tennyson [1809-1892], a poet of pure art, free from the motives of social struggle, Robert Browning [1812-1889] and his wife Elizabeth Barrett Browning [1806-1861], Swinburne [1837-1909], in whose poetry the ideals of eternal beauty and the protection of the exploited are unclearly intertwined. The most popular of the poets of this direction was Oscar Wilde [1854-1900], the “king of aesthetes”, who created the “religion of beauty” and the cult of liberating fiction in his “Thoughts” and in the novel “Portrait of Dorian Gray”, proclaiming the only reality of the creation of art, which claimed that art creates life, and not vice versa.

The continued growth of the industry introduces new topics into the literature - urbanism, machinism. Literature becomes dynamic, satire develops against the capitalist way of life. Bernard Shaw [1856-1950] is the most brilliant and paradoxical of satirical writers, a virtuoso of sophism, a witty author of mystification, a moderate socialist who is about to improve the situation of workers with the help of the bourgeoisie. Herbert Wells [1866-1946] is the author of science fiction novels, imbued with the pathos of technology, depicting the wonders of an industry that magically transforms life, connecting planets, allowing a person to move both into the past and the future. This process of the simultaneous growth of socialist tendencies and conservatively individualistic and aesthetic aspirations is accompanied by a number of diverse literary phenomena. Imperialism and chauvinism, having its representative in the person of Chamberlain , the Boer War, the cult of Kitchener - all this is reflected in the works of Rudyard Kipling [1865-1936], the most talented of the nationalist writers, the author of colonial stories and poems, where the colonial the policy of England, where the oppression of backward peoples is glorified as the realization of a great civilizing mission.

Another phenomenon is the reaction against machinism, causing a revival in the literature of religious movements, impulses into the other world, Theosophy, Spiritualism, Occultism, etc. Samuel Butler [1835-1902] and George Meredith [1828-1909], so dissimilar to each other in other respects, however, they are doing a common thing, paving the way for spiritualism, trying to build a new religion on the basis of modernity, using experience and research for this. We find features of romantic symbolism in the works of Yeats [1865-1939], a representative of the so-called. “Celtic revival”, and another of his representatives, also Irish, more prone to realism and naturalism, Singa [1871-1909]. Другой формой протеста против машинизма было ницшеанство, культ силы и гипертрофированный эстетизм, все те модернистские идеи, влияние которых нетрудно уловить не только у Оскара Уайльда, но и в творчестве Стивенсона [1850-1894], утончённого автора образцовых авантюрных романов, а также Джорджа Мура [1852-1933], говорившего почти языком Заратустры (в «Исповеди молодого человека») о своём презрении к состраданию и к христианской морали, о красоте жестокости, силы и красоте преступления.

Эта же враждебность к индустриальному веку породила струю пессимизма в английской литературе среди тех писателей, которые не могли примирить машинизм с душевным равновесием. Джемс Томсон [1834-1882] — один из замечательных поэтов, через всю поэзию которого проходит в качестве лейтмотива основная тема — мука жизни, мрачное величие отчаяния. Самый популярный и, может быть, самый глубокий из пессимистов — Томас Гарди [1848-1928], создатель грандиозной драматической эпопеи «Династы» и ряда романов, по преимуществу из жизни деревни и провинции. Над судьбой человека, по его учению, тяготеет тёмный и злой рок, непостижимый случай, жестокая неизбежность. Враг предрассудков и современного брака, ложащегося гнётом на женщину, враг цивилизации в духе Руссо или Толстого , Гарди не находит выхода из терзающих его мыслей. Тем же пессимизмом проникнут Джордж Роберт Гиссинг [1857-1903] — бытописатель лондонских низов и голодающей литературной богемы, ученик Диккенса, но лишённый его юмора и его филантропической веры, ничего не ждавший одинаково «ни от филантропии богатых, ни от восстания бедных». Пессимистичен и основной тон творчества Джозефа Конрада [1857-1924]. Конрад принадлежит к числу наиболее сильных и сложных писателей современности, поражает богатством и разнообразием языка. Он стремится проникнуть в глубину человеческой природы и использовать все средства для того, чтобы передать впечатление реального нашему сознанию: «красочность живописи, пластичность скульптуры и магическое действие музыки». Он рисует все виды человеческих страданий, он не идеализирует человека, потому что убеждён, что неискоренимый эгоизм делает человека волком другому человеку. Больше быта и здорового реализма у Арнольда Беннетта [1867-1931], изобразителя нравов низших слоёв провинциальной буржуазии, и больше верного социального инстинкта у Голсуорси [1867-1933], к-рый видит источник социальных конфликтов в существовании частной собственности. Честертон [1874-1936] — враг дряблости, проповедник активизма, но активизма средневековых корпораций, ревностный католик, убеждённый, что развитие индустрии — источник социального рабства. Джеймс Барри [1860-1937] — бытописатель шотландских крестьян, Конан Дойль [1859-1930] — прославленный автор исторических и полицейских романов, Роберт Хиченс [1864-1950] — сатирик и романтик, Израэл Зангвилл [1864-1926] — автор «Детей Гетто», бытописатель еврейской бедноты, и ряд других, менее значительных, завершают лит-ую деятельность старшей группы современных писателей. Кларенс Рук [1862-1915] — автор произведений о жизни лондонской бедноты, рабочего класса.

Пути нового поколения ещё не обрисовались отчётливо. В большинстве случаев это реалисты, которые однако не прочь затронуть и оккультные силы души. После стремления к ясности, ведущего своё происхождение от французских традиций, английская литература пережила период сильного русского влияния, гл. arr. Достоевского . Этому влиянию соответствует аморфность в литературе, реакция против французской пластичности. Хью Уолпол [1884-1941], один из наиболее модных романистов, сам легко следует за модой; Оливер Онионс приобрёл известность трилогией, в которой описывает богему, натурщиц, машинисток, бедных художников и т. д.; Гилберт Кэннан [1884-1955], Комптон Макензи [1883-1972], Лауренс [1887-] и ряд других молодых писателей, привлекающих в настоящее время внимание английского читателя, затрагивают самые разнообразные темы, изображают различные классы общества, критикуют социальные ценности, но их собственное мировоззрение чаще всего сводится к туманному гуманитаризму. Они сильнее в критике, чем в своих положительных идеях, и пока никому из них не удалось превзойти великих «стариков», как Шоу, Уэллс или Гарди.

К наиболее большим авторам межвоенного и военного периода можно отнести Сомерсета Моэма.

• « Рассерженные молодые люди » ( англ. Angry young men )
• Акройд, Питер
• Грин, Грэм
• Мёрдок, Айрис
• Голдинг, Уильям N
• Макьюэн, Иэн
• Барнс, Джулиан
• Бёрджес, Мелвин
• Найпол, Видиадхар Сураджпрасад N
• Гарольд Пинтер N
• Дорис Лессинг N
• Даффи, Стелла
• Ларкин, Филип
• Коуп, Венди

Антиутопия:

• Хаксли, Олдос
• Оруэлл, Джордж

Детектив:

• Кристи, Агата

Научная фантастика:

• Артур Кларк
• Дуглас Адамс
• Christopher Priest
• Джон Уиндем

Фэнтези:

• Джон Толкин
• Пратчетт, Терри
• Joanne Rowling

Детская литература:

• Клайв Стейплз Льюис
• Энид Мэри Блайтон
• Энн Файн
• Крессида Коуэлл

Влияние английской литературы на русскую выступает с большой силой уже в XVIII столетии и достигает своего апогея в эпоху романтизма, когда Байрон , Вальтер Скотт и другие английские писатели того времени вызвали своими сочинениями литературное движение во всей Европе , направленное против французского лжеклассицизма. Идеи английской литературы прошлого столетия отразилась в России главным образом в двух направлениях, или, лучше сказать, в двух отраслях литературной деятельности: в журналистике и в театре. Уже в начале этого столетия, именно между 1709 и 1714 гг., издавались в Англии Сталем и Аддисоном сатирические еженедельные журналы «Болтун», «Зритель» и «Опекун». В них впервые началась борьба с ложноклассическим направлением в литературе и проповедовался решительный поворот в сторону чисто народных, местных элементов в области сюжета и формы. Журналы эти отчасти непосредственно, но главным образом через немецкую литературу, где в то же время сильно отразилось английское движение, повлияли на русскую — в том отношении, что и в России стали издаваться подобные сатирические журналы между 1769 и 1774 гг. К этим журналам принадлежат следующие: «Всякая всячина» ( 1769 — 1770 ), «И то и се» ( 1769 ), «Ни то ни се» ( 1769 ), «Подёнщина» ( 1769 ), «Смесь» ( 1769 ), «Трутень» ( 1769 — 1770 ), « Адская почта » ( 1769 ), «Полезное с приятным» ( 1769 ), «Парнасский щепетильник» ( 1770 ), «Пустомеля» ( 1770 ), «Трудолюбивый муравей» ( 1778 ), «Старина и новизна» ( 1772 — 1773 ), «Вечера» ( 1772 ), «Живописец» ( 1772 ), «Мешанина» ( 1773 ), «Кошелёк» ( 1774 ). Программа этих журналов была близка программе английской, так как они вообще вооружались против старых суеверий и предубеждений, причём некоторые статьи прямо даже переводились из аддисоновских и сталевских журналов. Журналы эти, подобно их английским образцам, издавались не для высшего по рождению и образованию класса, а для среднего городского общества, и представляли изображения домашней ежедневной жизни, не бывшей предметом занятых высокими сюжетами произведений псевдоклассиков. Поэтому-то высшие слои общества и классические литераторы пренебрегали сперва этими сочинениями, придавая им значение народной книги, чтения для «подлых людей» (См. « Журнал »).

Гораздо сильнее развился другой род русской литературы, появившийся у нас под влиянием английских авторов, а именно т. н. мещанская драма , явившаяся в Англии и Франции продуктом социально-политического переворота, выдвинувшего вперёд третье сословие . В России в XVIII веке дворянство не подвергалось опасности лишиться некоторых своих прав в пользу городского населения; тем не менее, мещанская драма имела громадный успех в Москве и в скором времени достигла широкого развития. Причину этого, по всей вероятности, надо искать в том, что эти драмы, подобно английским образцам, выводили на сцену людей, более близких русскому обществу, чем герои лжеклассической трагедии и интернациональные типы французской комедии . Время появления мещанских драм в нашей литературе совпадает также со временем периодических изданий 1769 — 1774 г. Уже до этого времени переводились английские и французские и на английский образец написанные пьесы; так, были переведены: Лилло — первая по времени мещанская трагедия «Георг Барнвель, или Лондонский купец» ( 1764 ); актёром Дмитревским — французская переделка пьесы Мура «Игрок» и «Беверлей» и т. п. французские и немецкие драмы, напр. Детуша , Мариво , Лессинга и т. д. За переводами явились оригинальные подражательные комедии: Нарышкина , «Истинное дружество», Веревкина , «Так и должно» ( 1773 ), Хераскова, «Друг несчастных» ( 1774 ) и «Гонимые» ( 1775 ) и многие другие. В это время также начали переводить и Шекспира, которого называли Шакеспеаром, Шекеспиром и Чекспером. «Ричард III» переведён в Нижнем Новгороде в 1783 г., напечатан в 1787 ; «Юлий Цезарь» переведён Карамзиным в Москве в 1786 г., напечатан в 1787 . Сумароков подражал в некоторых местах Шекспиру, которого знал по псевдоклассическим переделкам.

В частности, некоторые из русских писателей XVIII в. отражают в своих сочинениях влияние английской литературы: так, Петров обнаруживал на себе довольно сильное влияние Аддисона и Локка; Костров подражал Оссиану, равным образом как и немного позже И. Дмитриев, который в оде «Ермак» представил бой между Ермаком и Мехмет-Кулом совсем по образцу Оссиана, описывавшего единоборство Сварана с Фингалом. Непосредственное влияние английской литературы видно также на Михаиле Муравьёве ( 1767 — 1807 ), учителе императора Александра I и великого князя Константина Павловича. Для своих уроков, содержание которых изложено в «Опытах истории, письмён и нравоучений» ( 1796 ), он принял в руководство труды шотландских учёных: Адама Смита, Гетчесона, Фергюсона, Рида, Лорда и Кемса. Но самое громадное влияние английская литература на русскую имела в эпоху романтизма, о чём см. Романтизм , Байрон, Вальтер Скотт, Пушкин , Лермонтов и др.

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В статье использован текст из Литературной энциклопедии 1929—1939 , перешедший в общественное достояние , так как автор — П. С. Коган — умер в 1932 году.