Economy of the Third Reich

After the defeat of Kaiser Germany in the First World War and the abdication of Emperor Wilhelm II , in 1919, the German National Assembly in Weimar adopted a constitution and established a republic . As a result of the Versailles Treaty concluded as a result of the war , Germany lost all of its colonies , lost 1/8 of its European territory, with a total area of ​​about 67,500 km², where 5.5 million inhabitants lived. In addition, Germany pledged to pay reparations in the amount of 132 billion marks over 37 years.

The refusal of binding to the gold standard and the uncontrolled emission of the brand led to galloping inflation . By mid- 1923, the German economy reached a low point: the cost of reparations, the payment of unemployment benefits and the employment of demobilized soldiers led to an increase in the budget deficit , unemployment was about 30%, the brand’s exchange rate changed every hour, billions of notes were put into circulation. In November 1923, the US dollar exchange rate was 4.2 trillion . stamps. To fight inflation in Germany, the "Rental Bank" ( Rentenbank ) was created, headed by Yalmar Schacht . According to the “Mine Plan” on November 15 a rental mark was introduced into circulation, which is the official means of payment and provided with land and real estate. The rate of the rental mark on the paper was 1: 1 000 000 000 000, and the issue of a new currency was severely limited. On December 22, Schacht became the head of the Reichsbank , gaining control over monetary policy. Established tight control over government spending and increased revenues made it possible to stop inflation. Overcoming hyperinflation made it possible to implement the “ Dawes Plan ” proposed by General C. Dawes . Germany received a deferment of reparations, and the United States provided loans for economic recovery. During 1924–29, loans of more than $ 5 billion came to Germany. In 1924, a fully convertible Reichmark was introduced into circulation, tied to the gold standard. After the restoration of the monetary system began a gradual recovery of the economy associated with the growth of international trade. By 1927, Germany had reached the level of pre-war production, and in terms of total industrial output, it ranked second in the world after the United States. The main markets for German goods were the countries of Southeastern Europe - Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , with which trade and economic agreements were signed in 1927. By 1929, the position of Germany was strengthened, but economic growth was still based on external borrowing, mostly short-term. The budget remained scarce because of the need for reparation payments. In June 1929, the Jung Plan , developed by the head of General Electric by the American financier O. Jung, was adopted at the Hague Conference on Reparations. The amount of reparations was reduced to 112 billion Reichsmarks, which were to be paid within 58.5 years.

October 24, 1929 there was a slump in US stock prices on the New York Stock Exchange . The stock market crash was followed by a crisis in the US banking system. Under these conditions, the crediting of the German economy was completely stopped, moreover, a massive outflow of capital began. Due to the decline in international trade, the export-oriented economy of Germany began to fall. The decrease in demand for German goods led to an increase in unemployment and an increase in the budget deficit. In March 1930, Yalmar Schacht left the post of head of the Reichsbank, demanding to reduce social spending and refuse to pay reparations. In 1931, the Reich Chancellor Heinrich Bruening, at a meeting of the international commission on reparations, declared the likelihood of a German state default . At the initiative of US President Herbert Hoover, Germany was granted a deferment in the payment of reparations (first for one year, and later for 15 years). In the same year, a series of bankruptcies of German banks and corporations began , and among them was one of the largest banks in Germany - Dresdner Bank . To cope with the panic, the government announced a bank holiday. Upon their completion, a moratorium was imposed on withdrawing money from the account. Further, the Reichsbank lowered the refinancing rate and reduced the interest on current loans. The state had to restructure problem banks. The financial crisis turned into a crisis of production. In the period from 1929 to 1932, GDP fell by 25%, industrial production by 40%, agricultural production by 30%, and unemployment reached 30%. Everywhere there was a reduction in wages, lockouts and strikes began at the enterprises. The anti-crisis “ deflationary ” policy of the Brüning Cabinet included a reduction of state (primarily social) allocations from the budget, an increase in the tax burden, and a reorganization of the banking sector. The government managed to prevent the collapse of the German financial system due to mass interventions - aimed at redeeming the obligations of large troubled banks, restructuring their debts and introducing permanent banking supervision. However, other ongoing activities have only aggravated the crisis in the German economy - the decline continued, and social tensions and citizens' discontent with the current situation sharply increased.

In January 1932, Germany unilaterally refused further payment of reparations, in the summer of that year at the international conference in Lausanne , the winning powers agreed with this decision. In total, according to various estimates, Germany paid out from 12 to 44 billion Reichsmarks of reparations.

Militarization of the economy

A few days after Adolf Hitler assumed the post of Reich Chancellor, he said that in order to overcome the economic crisis, actions would be taken in addition to the employment program, for which the 3.133 Reichsmarks had been earmarked in the 1933 budget. The need for the Reich to acquire new territories was one of the main points of the Nazi ideology. But due to the inevitable violent nature of this acquisition, the re-establishment of the armed forces was required. The implementation of the ideology of living space (see “ Blood and soil ”) and the autarky program required a focused and efficient use of public funds.

Economists from various fields, such as military service, journalism and economics, agreed with the needs of the economy in peacetime, among which were:

• Determination of industry demand for raw materials
• Fuel supply
• Adaptation of transport to wartime conditions
• Control of military spending

The main focus was on the intensification of the road and bridge construction program that began in 1929 , as well as on the development of the automotive industry. The organizer and chief designer of the construction of autobahns was Fritz Todt, an engineer at Sager & Woerner . At the same time, the military-strategic importance of the autobahn was relative. Despite the high level of motorization in Germany and a large number of people who know how to drive a car, autobahns contributed little to the transfer of troops and heavy weapons to future zones of military operations (mainly railways and horses were used for this). However, the road construction program proved to be very useful in terms of creating jobs for unqualified people - although still more jobs were created in the construction of naval vessels and combat aircraft. The introduction of universal conscription on March 16, 1935 also contributed to full employment; thanks to the same to the beginning of hostilities, the number of troops increased from 100,000 to one million soldiers.

In June 1935, within the framework of the Imperial Labor Service , compulsory labor service was introduced, which existed until 1941 , and which workers were serving mostly in agricultural work and in the municipal economy. Such a method of creating new jobs was considered forced and the foreign press is more preferable compared to the build-up of weapons. The duties of the young men aged 19 to 24 years, and from September 1, 1939, and the girls. The territory of the country was divided into 30 labor gau, in which, until 1938, 350,000 young men were serving. After the outbreak of the war, service became increasingly military in nature, in particular, in the framework of its construction, the construction of bunkers was carried out.

In the course of the struggle against unemployment, which, in turn, caused an increase in the number of employees, there was a gradual reduction in the rights of workers and employees. On May 2, 1933, the day after National Labor Day , the premises of the trade unions were seized, property was confiscated, and leading figures were arrested. On May 10, the German Labor Front (DAF) was formed under the leadership of Robert Ley , who subsequently carried out formal mediation between workers and enterprises. The law “On the Order of National Work” of January 20, 1934 introduced new concepts: from now on the employer was called the production manager (“Betriebsführer”) , and the hired workers were retinue (“Gefolgschaft”). DAF, as hard as possible, pursued a line on increasing labor productivity and introducing the “retinue” to the dominant ideology. Often used by the propaganda tool was the association “ Force through Joy ”, which dealt with issues of organizing and controlling the leisure of the population. Since 1936, there have been changes in the procedure for employment, and the concept of correctional labor has been introduced. For the purpose of greater controllability of workers, workbooks were introduced, and therefore, when changing jobs, career opportunities were limited.

Not in the whole industry — and within its industries not in every enterprise — the ideas of autarky and militarization met with support. Until 1935, direct military spending amounted to only 18% of the budget; the growing automobilization served as a criterion for the well-being of the population, and the German autobahns were one of the favorite propaganda objects of the advantages of the Nazi economy. Until 1936, it seemed that the promised re-rise had taken place, and a return to the world economy was still possible. However, the Nazis, led by Hitler, used the rise as proof that the alleged "intrigues of international Jewry" were the cause of the global economic crisis, and it must be overcome with the help of a policy of nationalism. For the ideas of autarky and living space that have strengthened their internal political position, it is time to take the next step: an increase in the scale of direct preparation for a war of conquest.

All the economic activities of the Nazis, however, were insufficient, in particular, the production capacity was not fully loaded (see table).

Germany on the European coal market in 1937

The transfer of the Reich economy to a war footing, accompanied by the inevitable reduction in the export of German goods, undermined Germany’s foreign economic position. In view of the risks of transition to active hostilities in spaces measuring hundreds of thousands of square kilometers, the Germans would not have crossed the borders of Poland precisely in 1939 if not for the “gift” of 25 tons of gold and other assets of the Czechoslovak Bank, which in September 1938 were presented To Hitler, his "appeasers" in the person of England and France, Chamberlain and Daladier . After the Munich Agreement, Czechoslovak assets were first brought to London and Basel, and in April 1939, the leaders of the Bank of England and the Bank for International Settlements officially transferred Czechoslovak gold to the Reichsbank in the amount of £ 24 million. Art. ^[6] .

In the wake of the Munich policy of "appeasement", Britain and France responded to the so-called "strange war" to the seizure of Poland . With the almost complete absence of hostilities on land, the United Kingdom focused on the naval blockade of German ports, which Chamberlain’s government announced on September 6, 1939 . However, Germany was ready for such a development. On May 10, 1939, the OKW Directive was issued, which prescribed:

As in the event of war with England, Germany will lose its Atlantic communications ... to prepare first of all the following measures:

a) enhanced exchange of goods with Italy;

b) enhanced imports from the southeast space;

c) the economic provision of individual deliveries from Scandinavia, as well as the transfer of transshipment points (from land transport to ships) and ports in southern Sweden;

d) associated with this intra-German movement in the economy and the order of movement on communications ^[7] .

- OKW Directive of May 10, 1939 on economic warfare

The counter military actions against transports in the Atlantic, which began after this on both sides, could not in principle bring England the desired effect, since the exporters concerned had taken all measures in advance to move strategic cargoes under neutral flags. The main commodity, the deliveries of which could really lead the war machine of the Third Reich to the crisis, was oil - and just here the interests of the USA came into force. Just on the eve of the war, the Americans received concessions in Saudi Arabia. According to the then Undersecretary of State S. Welles, this was a revenge for the defeat that England and France inflicted on the United States in the Arab East following the First World War ^[8] .

Another bridgehead in which the USA managed to succeed in rivalry with England was Mexico, one of the leading oil-producing countries in its region. Chamberlain, in response to the nationalization of the Mexican oil industry in March 1938, responded with a rupture of diplomatic relations; Roosevelt showed flexibility. As a result, in the summer of 1938, the American oilman William R. Davis, who maintained close relations with G. Goering, organized the export of Mexican oil to Germany and Italy. From June 1938 to September 1939, the Davis Oil Company transported 3 million tons of Mexican oil across the ocean, and more than half to Germany. As a result, before the war, Mexico’s share in German oil imports was 20% ^[8] .

The effectiveness of the British naval blockade of Germany was significantly undermined by Mussolini’s maneuver: contrary to the expectations of Chamberlain and Daladier, since the beginning of the war Italy did not enter the war, but took the position of Hitler, a non-military ally. As a result, the Admiralty was forced to instruct the British forces in the Mediterranean "to be careful" (that is, to let Italian ships pass through) in order not to provoke Italy to enter the war ^[8] .

The largest supplier of oil in Europe, Hitler was Romania. September 12, 1939 the military office of England decided to buy all the Romanian oil. The requirement of the Romanian government to pay for oil in dollars was unacceptable for England. As a result, the negotiations were terminated, and the Romanian oil remained to Hitler. It is noteworthy that payment in dollars was required not so much by the Romanian government, as by foreign (including British) private companies, in whose hands were three-quarters of Romanian oil exports ^[8] .

Up until August 23, 1939, when the Non-Aggression Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union was signed, London, Paris and Washington were planning their policy in the hope that Hitler would strike the USSR following Poland. However, on September 17, Soviet troops occupied the Drohobych - Borislav oil- industrial region , and the railway line from Lviv to the Romanian border (through which it was possible to supply oil) was turned to Soviet gauge. Regarding this, as the USSR’s desire to block Germany’s path not only to the East, but also to the south-east, Lord Halifax drew the attention of the British Ambassador to the US Marquis Lothian to the negative consequences of the continuation of the economic blockade of Germany and hinted at the possibility of receiving peace initiatives from Hitler. Indeed, on October 6, 1939, the Führer made a proposal for a peaceful settlement in the Reichstag, but France and Britain rejected them, because instead of going to the East, Hitler chose to withdraw troops to the "Curzon Line" . Meanwhile, the attempts of the British government to put an end to violations of the economic blockade of Germany by the American courts remained unsuccessful. Due to the unprecedented freeze-up on the Danube in the harsh winter of 1939/1940, Germany’s supply of Romanian oil dropped sharply. When the ice melted in March 1940, deliveries to Germany were first resumed by the French-Belgian company Columbia and the American Roma-Americana. A major contribution to the supply of Germany with oil products was made by American companies Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey, Standard Oil Co. of California, as well as Texaco ^[8] .

At the same time, the signing of the Non-Aggression Pact also did not entail an immediate and drastic change in German-Soviet trade. After reaching a record level in 1931 (1.07 billion marks, including 762.7 million exports and 303.5 million imports from the USSR), trade began to decline, and especially sharply after Hitler came to power. In 1934, imports from the USSR fell to 223, in 1936 to 93.2, and in 1938 to 47.4 million marks ^[9] . On August 19, 1939, a new trade agreement was signed, under which the USSR pledged to supply Germany with goods worth 180 million marks for two years, in exchange for a loan of 200 million marks for counter purchases of German goods. This contract had almost no effect on the turnover of the current year, and in 1939 imports grew only to 52.8 million marks ^[9] .

The situation was not easy in the next year, 1940. The agreement of February 11, 1940 formally opened up the possibility of increasing the annual volume of Soviet shipments to 420-430 million marks, including 1 million tons of grain and 900 thousand tons of oil. In fact, in the first 6 months (until August 1940) the USSR put only 28% of the plan. The reason was that German deliveries seriously lagged behind the Soviet ones: for example, the USSR sent raw materials for 119.1 million marks, and received from Germany only equipment for 84.2 million marks (including airplanes: 2 " Dornier-215 ", 5 " Messerschmitt-109E ", 5" Messerschmitt-110 ", 2" Junkers-88 ", 3 + 2 = 5" Heinkel-100 ", 3" Bücker-131 "and 3" Bücker-133 ", as well as the cruiser " Lutzow " . September 12, 1940 Mikoyan . warned the German side, because of the backlog of German deliveries to the Soviet exports may be reduced up to a temporary suspension so it happened: the export of Com in the IV quarter In the third quarter, it decreased by 2 times from the third quarter, and decreased again in early 1941. As a result, in 1940, Germany received 657 thousand tons of oil from the USSR instead of 900. Grain deliveries were also less promising. Barley was the main part (732 thousand t) and oats (143 thousand tons); as for wheat, its deliveries amounted to only symbolic 5 thousand tons.

For a year and a half, from the end of 1939 to the end of May 1941, Germany imported from the USSR 1 million tons of petroleum products for 95 million marks, 1.6 million tons of grain for 250 million marks, 111 thousand tons of cotton for 100 million marks, 36 thousand tons oil cakes for 6.4 million marks, 10 thousand tons of flax for 14.7 million marks, timber products for 41.3 million marks, 1.8 thousand tons of nickel for 8.1 million marks, 185 thousand tons of manganese ore for 7 , 6 million marks, 23 thousand tons of chrome ore per 2 million marks, 214 thousand tons of phosphates to 6 million marks.

In June 1941, the territory controlled by the Third Reich constituted the whole of Europe, except for Sweden , Switzerland and countries sympathizing with the Reich, as well as Great Britain and Iceland (for example, the Czech Republic accounted for ~ 30% of the economic potential of the Reich). This territory possessed superior Soviet human resources.

A significant contribution to the industrial potential of Germany was made by residents of the occupied territories, most of which were transported to Germany by force. According to P. M. Polyana , more than 50% of the Ostarbeiters were former USSR citizens from the occupied territories of the RSFSR, Belarus and Ukraine, and another 30% came from Poland (30%) ^[10] . The ethnic composition of Ostarbeiters was dominated by Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Belarusians, Tatars, and others ^[11] . The total number of Ostarbeiters is estimated at between 3 and 5.5 million people ^[10] .

As of the fall of 1944, 8 million foreigners worked in the German industry, that is, a quarter of the total industry employed in the industry. 2 million of them were prisoners of war . 2.5 million were exported from the Soviet Union, 1.7 million from Poland, 1.3 million from France, 600 thousand from Italy. In addition, 650 thousand prisoners of concentration camps , in the majority of Jews - “they lived while they worked”. About half of the workers from the USSR and Poland were women, whose average age was 20 years ^[12] .

• Imperial Labor Service ( Reichsarbeitsdienst , RAD )
• Ostarbeiters

Military production

In the first year of the war with the USSR , the territory of the Byelorussian SSR , the Ukrainian SSR , and the Baltic states were also subordinated to millions of people, thousands of enterprises serving the Wehrmacht. The economic potential of the Red Army decreased by the same amount.

However, as early as 1942, Minister of Arms F. Todt warned Hitler that, in an economic sense, Germany had already lost the war. The “personal architect of Hitler,” Albert Speer , who proved to be a talented organizer and replaced Todt at his post after the death of the latter in a plane crash, agreed with this. Thanks to the efforts of Speer, the German military industry increased its production until the autumn of 1944 .
According to Speer, technically, Germany was defeated on May 12, 1944 , when, due to the massive bombardment of the Allies , 90% of the factories producing synthetic fuel were destroyed ^[13] .

Corporate Reform

The concept of building a corporate state involves the creation of professional self-governing organizations of two types: for employers (guilds) and for employees (trade unions). In this case, it is supposed to force syndication of all (except for “non-citizens”, - Jews, Gypsies, Negroes) workers and employers.

• The Imperial Chamber of Commerce (him. Reichswirtschaftskammer) - all-German guild of class, formed in accordance with the "Law on the preparation of the organic structure of the economy" of February 27, 1934. The creation of the guild was intended to facilitate the regulation of industrial production by the authorities and the inclusion of the economy in the system of preparing the German economy for war. The structure was divided into 6 groups:

1.industry (leaders Gustav Krupp , etc.)

2.banks (headed by Kurt von Schröder)

3. trade (headed by Franz Heiler)

4.insurance (led by Edward Hilgard)

5. power engineering

6. heap production

• The Imperial Food Class (German Reichsnährstand, RNST) is an all-German professional guild (corporation) formed in accordance with the decree of December 8, 1933 to the “Law on the Temporary Organization of the Imperial Food Class” of September 13, 1933. Through the control of the imperial ministry of food and agriculture was carried out state-monopoly regulation of the production of agricultural products and the primary processing of agricultural raw materials.

The goals and objectives were:

1. Provide food autarky of Germany

2. Regulation of agricultural production by the authorities

3. Inclusion of agriculture in the system of preparing the German economy for war.

• The imperial estate of the German craft (German: Reichsstandes des Deutschen Handwerks; RDH) was the general German professional guild of artisans, which united 52 imperial craft unions and was part of the Imperial Economic Chamber. All artisans and some handicrafts were included in the estate.

Imperial Chamber of Commerce (guild)

On February 13, 1934, the Imperial Association of German Industry prepared a reform project, the structure of the organization of the industry of the Third Reich. On the basis of this project, on February 27, 1934, the Law on Preparing the Organic Structure of the Economy was adopted. German Reichswirtschaftskammer) - self-regulating all-German professional guild, entrepreneurs.

German Labor Front (trade union)

On April 2, 1933, all non-National Socialist trade unions were banned. On April 10, the German Labor Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront) was formed in place of the banned trade unions. The core of the new organization was national-socialist trade unions, the rest of the “non-communist” trade unions were forcibly joined. The law on authorized persons in enterprises of May 19, 1933 established a new form of relations between the employer and employees. On September 7, 1933, a detailed settlement framework was developed. of labor relations - Memorandum to the laws on the regulation of labor relations. On January 20, 1934, on the basis of the revised draft, the Law on the Regulation of National Labor was adopted, and then ё 19 directive instructions for its implementation, which were the basis for regulating industrial relations and the activities of the German Labor Front.

Financial reform

Types of settlement instruments for obligations

External liabilities:

• ASKI Accounts - foreign trade clearing system.
• Currency accounts - use for legal entities (under the most severe control of the state, for abuse - execution), for individuals - the limit in the case of a trip abroad.

Internal liabilities:

• The national currency, at the time of its appearance, is the land Reichsmark, tied to the value of public property - land
• Off-promissory notes - for settlements within “communities”
• Mefo-bill - for investment lending, settlements between enterprises with the possibility of conversion (under state control) into the national currency. And here could be Fed money. Gezel's money is not suitable here, as there are different periods of circulation and payback in different sectors of the economy. The public sector was not interested in the recoupment, if the “people and the Reich” needed this, then the investments were opened up under obviously unprofitable projects
• Currency “notgeldy” is a foreign currency “emitted” not by a foreign country, but by one’s own country (currency interest-free bonds in pounds sterling and dollars), for hedging and “amateurs” investing in currency.
• Tax certificates - on the one hand: state loan, on the other - the state itself expands the turnover base for the purpose of corporate lending at the expense of future tax revenues. Some resemblance to the “Gosnotgeldy” (securing at the expense of future income from mail, telegraph and railways) of the hyperinflation times of 1923/24.

Territorial obligations:

• Camp money, ghetto money, and others, for example, Befil-money.
• Occupation marks for German citizens (and only when returning to Germany) with the established exchange rate in the Reichsmark.

There could also have been Gezel's money, but, naturally, this was not part of the plans of the leadership of the Third Reich.

Comprehensive mechanism for eliminating inflation

• Monetary autarky is the “denouement” of the national currency to the world currency market (pound-sterling, for the 30s of the 20th century). The rate of the mark was not tied to any foreign currency or basket.
• The ban on the export of national currency (Reichsmark) abroad.
• Legislative limitation of the maximum amount of dividends and interest.
• Freezing earnings and consumer market prices.
• Carteling of the entire (100%) economy:
• As a result - the complete elimination of parasite intermediaries from the sphere of production.
• Supply and demand planning with a ban on status consumption of imported goods.
• The system of state licenses for foreign trade transactions.
• Unthinkable high capital export tax.

Agrarian Reform

Social Device

The future society was represented by the Nazis as a network controlled by three verticals (hierarchies) of power.

The first side of the triangle is the habitat (place of residence, pastime, comfort of the workplace and so on). The democratic principle of forming the vertical dominated here - the election of leaders. The second side is the sphere of social production. This vertical was formed according to the professional principle, based on the qualities of: - knowledge, experience, certification results. The third side is the sphere of national spirit. Appointments in this vertical were made when the party recognized the leader as worthy. The main (but not the only) regulators were: in the “sphere of dwelling” —The Labor Front, in the “sphere of the spirit” —NSDAP, in the “sphere of production” —the Imperial Chamber of Commerce. The triangle had another, mystical meaning: one side symbolized what is commonly called the "heart", the second - the mind, and the third - the will. The same citizen could act as the head of one or several “verticals” at the same time. At the same time, his ranks in each of the verticals could differ significantly. When resolving conflict situations, it was assumed that decisions would be made on a majority basis: when any two verticals came to a common agreement, the third (previously disagreeable) had to adapt its policy. the lower echelons of all three management hierarchies were social activists, while the highest echelons were “liberated” workers who received wages.

• Architecture of the Third Reich
• Military production during World War II
• Economic policy of fascism

in Russian

• Collection. How forged the German sword. Industrial potential of the Third Reich. - M .: Yauza , Eksmo , 2006. - 608 p. - 4000 copies - ISBN 5-699-15425-6 .
• Thyssen F. I financed Hitler. - M .: Tsentrpoligraf , 2008. - 255 p. - 5000 copies - ISBN 978-5-9524-3704-3 .
• Curl G. Military economy and military industry. // Results of the Second World War. - M .: Publishing house of foreign literature , 1957. - p. 356-384
• Mosyakin A. G. Robbery Europe. Treasures and the Second World War. - M .: Fellowship of scientific publications KMK, 2018. - 317 p., Ill. - ISBN 978-5-6040749-0-9 (1st ed .: Robbery Europe. The Ecumenical Circulation of Treasures. - St. Petersburg: Amphora , 2014. - 414 p. - ISBN 978-5-367-03200-0 ).
• Schwerin von Krosig L. How the Second World War was funded. // Results of the Second World War. - M .: Publishing house of foreign literature , 1957. - P. 418-442.
• Shearer U. The rise and fall of the Third Reich. - M .: Eksmo , 2003. - 928 p.

in other languages

• Dean M. Robbing the Jews - The Cofiscation of the Jewish Property in the Holocaust, 1935-1945. - Cambridge University Press , 2008. (English)

• Economy of the Third Reich on the portal NaziReich.net