The technique of building the Egyptian pyramids

Reconstruction of the process of building the pyramids according to Herodotus (engraving of the 18th century)

The only written source that describes the process of building the pyramids is the second book of the “History” of Herodotus , who visited Egypt around 450 BC. e. Not speaking the language of the Egyptians , Herodotus was supposed to make notes from the words of Greek settlers who lived in the country, and also - through translators - from the words of representatives of the Egyptian priesthood. About how the Great Pyramids were built two thousand years before it, it was definitely difficult for him to find out, since this was hardly known to the Egyptians themselves.

Some were required to drag huge blocks of stones from quarries in the Arabian mountains to the Nile (stones were transported across the river by ships), while others were ordered to drag them further to the so-called Libyan mountains. One hundred thousand people performed this work continuously, changing every three months. For ten years, the tormented people had to build a road along which these stone blocks were dragged - in my opinion, the work is almost as huge as the construction of the pyramid itself. After all, the road was five stages in length, and ten orgies wide, in the highest place eight orgies high ^{[GerodotCite 1]} , was built of hewn stones with figures carved on them. For ten years the construction of this road and underground chambers continued on the hill where the pyramids stand. In these chambers, Cheops set up his tomb on the island, leading the Nile Canal to the mountain. The construction of the pyramid itself lasted twenty years. On each side of it there is an eight- plelet face ^{[GerodotCite 2]} , square and equal in height ^{[GerodotCite 3]} . It is composed of carved and fitted stones, each stone at least thirty cubic feet ^{[GerodotCite 4]} . This pyramid is built like this. First, it goes in the form of a staircase with ledges, which others call platforms, or steps. After the first stones were laid, the rest were lifted with the help of scaffolds hammered together from short beams. So the stones were lifted from the ground to the first step of the stairs. There they laid a stone on another platform; from the first stage they dragged to the second platform, with the help of which they lifted to the second stage. How many rows of steps, so many lifting devices. Perhaps, however, there was only one lifting device, which, after raising the stone, was easily transferred to the next step. After all, I was informed about both methods - why I bring them. Thus, at first the upper part of the pyramid was completed, then the middle and finally the lowest steps on the earth were built.

The last phrase of Herodotus seems nonsense, but the fact is that during his visit to Egypt, the pyramids on the Giza plateau were still facing, and were smooth pyramids. Herodotus tries to explain with this phrase how the cladding blocks were delivered to the very top of the pyramid - after all, according to the described method, for its implementation it is necessary that the entire pyramid to the top be compliant. In fact, the problem of explaining the cladding technique should also take into account the fact that the cladding was attached to elongated embedded edge blocks, in contrast to the blocks of rough masonry, which always went under the overlying layer.

Explanation

Mining blocks in pyramid quarries

Nowadays, historical science , on the basis of archaeological research, many drawings and written data, has extensive information about the location of the quarries , where materials were extracted for the construction of the pyramids, as well as on the methods of extraction and transportation of stone.

In working with a relatively soft stone, which is most of the limestone , workers could use copper and bronze picks , chisels with hammers and even stone analogues of these tools. There is also a hypothesis about the existence of iron tools in the time of the Old Kingdom . However, to date, science does not have reliable finds of precisely tools (only reports of early researchers have been preserved).

The harder rocks — granite , basalt , quartzite, and the like — could be processed by hammering them with a dolerite tool. Drilling and sawing took place using copper or bronze tubes and toothless saws using abrasives such as quartz sand . Hieroglyphs and other images were knocked out with the help of flint chisels ^[2] . For granite blocks (as well as for sculptures), whenever possible, suitable blocks were selected, which were given the necessary shape. Or they could break out of the rock mass using rows of notches and wooden wedges swelling in the water. In the extraction of granite, the use of fire, followed by upholstering, is not excluded, for which there are examples of a later period.

It is worth adding that the bulk of the stones that make up the pyramids does not exceed 1.5-2.5 tons, which makes them suitable for transportation. At the same time, crushing the stone to the dimensions of, for example, brick would increase the laboriousness of processing the same volume of stone at least several times.

Limestone concrete block casting

French chemist Professor Joseph Davidovitz , specializing in the development of building materials, put forward a hypothesis about the production of blocks of pyramids directly at the construction site from a mixture of stone chips and "geopolymer concrete " based on limestone ^[3] . This version also explains the exact fit of the individual blocks during the construction of the pyramid by the fact that the blocks were made of material resembling concrete by gradually raising the formwork and making blocks immediately in place - hence the accuracy of the fit. Davidovitz in the mid-twentieth century developed a way to create the so-called geopolymer concrete and suggested that its discovery could be known to the creators of the pyramids. According to him, he managed to find a recipe for concrete preparation in a hieroglyphic inscription on one of the stelae ^[3] .

This theory was not widely used in the scientific environment and subsequent studies refuted this theory ^{[4] [5] [6] [7] [8]} , since geologists and paleontologists who studied the composition and structure of the blocks of pyramids have repeatedly noted that the blocks represent treated blocks of natural sediment ^{[9] [10]} .

It is important to consider that the large pyramids of the III dynasty were built with a spill of installed limestone blocks with a large amount of gypsum mortar. Pink gypsum mortar is clearly visible between the blocks of the Great Cheops Pyramid. Local gypsum was used here to burn gypsum; the solution contains numerous inclusions of coals from it. A radiocarbon analysis of these residues indicated dates that correlated well with the traditional dating of the construction of the pyramid in the era of Cheops.

Also, you should know that the pyramids were periodically subjected to rather large volumes of restoration using modern cement blocks, in particular the Chefren Pyramid , whose dilapidated cap of the preserved cladding at the top poses a risk of shedding. Significant volumes of modern tinted cement were also used in the Cheops pyramid, in particular, for closing up breaks made by ancient robbers (on the Big Step, in the Pre-chamber, in the Tsar’s Chamber). Also, for the convenience of visiting tourists, a large number of holes for handrails were previously drilled in the pyramids, then during reconstruction, some of them were dismantled, filled with modern cement, etc. All these examples of finding cement have nothing to do with construction in antiquity.

Boating movements

In 2013, during excavations at the Vali El Jarf site on the Red Sea, a group of French and Egyptian researchers discovered a papyrus archive dating back to the end of the reign of Cheops, the oldest ever found in Egypt (the so-called Red Sea papyrus ). Most of the documents are invoices for provisions delivered to employees and journals of registration of their activities. Two documents are a daily description of the actions carried out by a brigade (fila) of 40 workers under the guidance of a man named Merer, probably the author of these documents, for 3-5 months (apparently, from July to November of the last year of Cheops' reign). The texts reveal the technique of transporting limestone blocks from the Tura quarry to the Cheops pyramid, located down the Nile 12 kilometers from the Tour. The team used a wooden sailing boat and moved several dozen blocks on them in one flight through a canal system from the Nile almost to the pyramid; estimated one team transported about 1000 blocks per season (during the annual flood of the Nile), making one full flight with loading, unloading and overnight stays for an average of 5 days ^{[11] [12]} . Papyruses confirm that the stone from Tours and Aswan was delivered to the Giza pyramids by water, through the artificial lake connecting with the Nile to the pier, opened in recent years by archaeologists led by Mark Lerer ^[13] At the same time, huge careers of the less quality, rough limestone of Giza , as well as the construction sites of the pyramids there, are located on a hill relative to the Nile, there are no traces of flooded channels between them. In other places, for example in Saqqara, the river is removed from these objects and even further.

Block

One of the most difficult tasks for builders was the need to move heavy stones. The fresco of the time of the XII dynasty in the necropolis of Deir al-Bershe is known, which depicts 172 people pulling an alabaster statue of Nomar XV Nom Dzhehutikhotep II on a drag sled. A worker pours sand along the route, making gliding easier. Experimentally, Dutch physicists from the University of Amsterdam confirmed this theory in 2014 ^[14] .

Estimating its weight at 60 tons, Denys Stocks extrapolated : to move a block weighing 16,300 kg, with the condition for using grease, 45 would be enough, and for a weight of 2750 kg - 8 workers. Therefore, the most common way was to move cargo on a drag sled.

The Egyptians also knew how to roll along two parallel gutters filled with balls on brick-paved roads. A similar method was used in Russia to move the Thunder stone weighing 1,500 tons. The remains of bricked roads were found near quarries and some pyramids. However, such a method of transportation, apparently, did not have wide application. .

Rolling Blocks

R. Parry ( Eng. RHG Parry ) proposed a reconstruction of the method of rolling blocks using the cradle mechanism that is found during excavations of various shrines of the New Kingdom . By placing four such devices around the unit, it could be easily rolled . Obayashi conducted an experiment with 2.5-ton concrete blocks 0.8 × 1.6 m in size, during which 18 people were able to drag this cargo on a plane with a slope of 1: 4 at a speed of 18 m per minute. Even Vitruvius in his treatise “Ten Books on Architecture” ^[15] described similar methods of moving non-standard goods.

There is still no evidence that the Egyptians used this particular method, but experiments show the possibility of working with blocks of this size.

Hypothesis flaws

Egyptologists recognize this possibility for 2.5-ton blocks (making up the majority in the mass of material), but differ in the possibilities of a similar method with respect to blocks heavier than 15 tons, some of which reach 70 tons or 90 tons in weight (like a large granite block above entrance to the tomb in the Pyramid of Cheops).

With this mechanism, you can roll a block only on a hard road, but not in the sand. No stone road found. The ramp should also be very solid and strong and fairly flat. On a steep ramp there will be a problem of stability.

On the way of delivery, you will have to “change” a block several times - extra labor and time. Additional costs for moving the cradle mechanism together with the block, the need for its return to the place of mining blocks.

Square Wheel Technology

If you make the road from the scaffolds - sections of a quarter of a circle, then even one employee can easily roll a square block with the same perimeter as a circle ^[16] . The center of gravity of the block in such a design always remains at the same level. The friction force is negligible. Theoretically, just pushing the block, it will roll itself. Especially from the mountain where the quarries were located.

In this way, gigantic blocks can be moved and raised. For example, to move the obelisk, it is enough to put several platforms in a row - to expand the road.

The rise can be carried out using a rope loop (several loops) directly along the slope of the pyramid or a very steep ramp - the block will self-center under the influence of its own gravity, and the loop will reduce the force by half. At the same time, there is no need for workers to climb themselves - just pull the rope without leaving the spot. Lift in several streams is possible.

This technology fits the description of Herodotus:

В этой технологии блок действительно перетаскивается с одного помоста, сколоченного из коротких балок, на другой. И помосты можно без труда перекладывать.

Для подъёма будет достаточно примерно 30-40 человек. Для транспортировки по равнине хватит одного человека. Для транспортировки тысячетонного обелиска потребуется примерно 500 человек.

Недостатки гипотезы

Каменные блоки кладки пирамид все совершенно разных размеров и (часто) формы, стандартизации подвергалась только высота блока (толщина слоев кладки), да и то, она очень варьировалась со временем. Таким образом, понадобилось бы подгонять оснастку буквально под каждый блок.

Существует отдельная проблема, связанная с завершением строительства верхней части пирамид, где традиционно устанавливался пирамидион . Некоторые из этих пирамидионов сохранились, а на вершине пирамиды Хефрена сохранились камни его крепления. Известные пирамидионы от заведомо меньших пирамид, чем наиболее крупные, весили несколько тонн. Пирамидионы Великих пирамид могли весить более 10 тонн, и камень таких размеров и сложной формы надо было доставить на высоту порядка 140 метров, где не оставалось ничего кроме гладких боковых граней пирамиды и небольшого посадочного места под сам пирамидион. Это была трудная и очень опасная задача. В настоящее время наиболее реальной моделью, предложенной египтологами, является возведение лесов в виде "шалаша", внутри которых сам пирамидион подвешивался на канате. Закручиванием каната можно было немного приподнять камень и подставив под него подставку, ослабить канат и поднять леса чуть выше. Не исключено, что пирамидион, таким образом, находился на строительной площадке (слоях) пирамиды бо́льшую часть времени ее возведения, вплоть до самого конца строительства, поднимаясь все выше и выше.

Внутренний пандус

В 2005 году Жан-Пьер Уден и Боб Браер выдвинули предположение об использовании внутреннего пандуса при строительстве Большой пирамиды и провели компьютерное моделирование, на основе чего был снят документальный фильм « Разгадка тайны пирамиды Хеопса » (2008). В настоящее время эта теория не пользуется какой-то популярностью, в частности, потому что не дает ответа на вопрос о том, как строились остальные Великие пирамиды; в частности, Пирамида Микерина имеет очень глубокие вертикальные повреждения кладки, и если бы хоть какие-то, даже заложенные позднее, пандусы внутри неё были, они были бы давно известны.

Экспериментальное строительство пирамиды

В 1997 году археолог Марк Ленер и инженер Роджер Хопкинс ( англ. Roger Hopkins ) для съёмок эпизода в американском научно-популярном документальном телесериале Nova провели экспериментальное строительство небольшой пирамиды. Её высота составила 6,1 метров, ширина основания порядка 9 метров, общий вес около 367,4 тонн при объёме в 162 кубических метра. Пирамида состояла из 186 блоков средней массой порядка 2 тонн ^[18] .

Строительство заняло немногим более трёх недель, что диктовалось условиями съёмок телесериала. Из них 22 дня ушло, чтобы силами 12 рабочих карьера изготовить необходимые блоки. Для этого использовались железные молотки, зубила и рычаги, подобные по своей геометрии древнеегипетским. Экспериментально было установлено, что применение медных или бронзовых инструментов потребовало бы привлечение дополнительных 20 человек для их постоянной заточки ^[19] .

Для ускорения строительства монтаж блоков осуществлялся с помощью вилочного погрузчика . Однако установка замкового, самого верхнего блока массой чуть менее тонны, производилась силами пяти человек при использовании рычагов. Попутно экспериментально было определено, что использовавшиеся двухтонные блоки возможно перемещать, в том числе и на подъём, силами 12 — 20 человек при условии использования деревянных полозьев, скользящих по деревянному настилу ^[20] .

Ещё одна проблема возникает в связи с раствором , используемым для заполнения пустот между камнями, так как для этого требовалось немалое количество гипса . Связующий материал хоть и не играет основной роли для стабилизации постройки, он всё же был необходим в качестве смазки для облегчения перемещения тяжелых блоков.

Процесс производства строительного гипса требует дегидратации исходного сырья, для чего, в свою очередь, нужно топливо, древесина . Исходя из этого, David H. Koch, проводивший исследования по программе радиоуглеродного обследования пирамид ( англ. Pyramids Radiocarbon Project ^[21] ), высказал предположение, что для постройки пирамид в Гизе Египту пришлось бы свести все свои леса до последней щепки.

Анализ углерода , извлечённого из материала-заполнителя, показал некоторый разброс полученных дат в отдельных частях пирамид, что Кох связывает с необходимостью использовать старое древесное топливо. Ввиду чего, данный феномен может трактоваться в пользу гипотезы, что меньшие размеры более поздних пирамид объясняются сильным истощением лесных ресурсов Египта. Однако, подобные предположения египтологами всерьёз не рассматриваются.

Сам фундамент постройки по горизонту выравнивали, вероятно, путём заполнения водой вырытых вокруг основания траншей (как предполагают Mark Lehner и IESEdwards ), либо же с помощью обычного квадратного уровня и опытных разметчиков ^{[22] [23]} .

Некоторые исследователи выдвигали оценки трудоёмкости постройки пирамиды Хеопса. Например, К. Менделссон посчитал необходимую работу не более 50000 человек, когда Л. Борчардт и Л. Крон оценили в 36000. М. Вернер — в 30000 человек. ^{[24] [25]}

• Леонард Горелик, А. Джонн Гвинетт Сверление камня в Древнем Египте
• Лукас, А. Материалы и ремесленные производства в Древнем Египте . М : Издательство иностранной литературы, 1958. 748 с.
• Cohagan, Ryan. Building the Pyramids (англ.) . Creighton Inoversity. Дата обращения 12 августа 2010. Архивировано 26 марта 2012 года.
• Weigele, Hans. Die Rekonstruktion der ägyptischen Pyramiden (нем.) (pdf). Дата обращения 12 августа 2010. Архивировано 26 марта 2012 года.
• Weigele, Hans. Neue Sicht auf Pyramidenbau (нем.) . Дата обращения 12 августа 2010. Архивировано 26 марта 2012 года.

• Николай Васютин . Сверление камня — реконструкция древней технологии
• Riddle Of The Great Pyramids Of Giza: Professor Finds Some Building Blocks Were Concrete
• Building the Pyramids: Materials, Tools, Moving, etc.
• Tyson, Peter Pulling Together | NOVA Online, 1999 (англ.)
• д/ф «10 главных загадок Египта» ( Egypt´s Top Ten Mysteries ) канала Discovery World