Fundamentalism

The term was originally used to refer to narrowly focused religious beliefs that developed in the Protestant movement in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century , and having their origins in the fundamentalist-modernist contradictions that were widely known at that time. He was associated with the publication of a series of works under the heading “ The Fundamentals. A Testimony to the Truth ” ^[5] . Until the 1950s the term fundamentalism was not included in the Oxford English Dictionary . ^{[6] [7]} . The term is widely used as a pejorative , negatively characterizing definition, especially often combined with other epithets (eg, the frequently used expressions “Islamic fundamentalism”, “right-radical / left-radical fundamentalism”) ^{[8] [9]} .

The most active fundamentalist trend is manifested in Islam , Christianity , Judaism and Hinduism ^[5] nevertheless, the trends that have the signs of fundamentalist, are identified by experts in other religions ^[10] and outside of religion.

Religious fundamentalism is a tendency that expresses a negative reaction of conservative religious circles (XIX – XX centuries) to secularization, that is, the emancipation of science, culture and social life from religion, which has caused the marginalization of the latter. The opposite trend is religious and philosophical modernism ^[11] .

Christian fundamentalism

Protestant Fundamentalism

The very concept of “fundamentalism” arose in the United States precisely in the context of Protestantism. In 1895, at a biblical conference in Niagara Falls, a group of Protestant pastors put forward five basic ("fundamental") principles:

• The Infallibility of the Scriptures.
• The divine origin of Christ and the immaculate conception.
• The death of Christ on the cross for sinners (“atonement by substitution”).
• The physical resurrection of Christ.
• The future return of Christ in the flesh ( second coming ).

The Presbyterian General Assembly approved these principles in 1910 and adopted a number of other conservative religious organizations. Between 1909 and 1915, in the state of California, Pastors Ruben Torrey and A. S. Dixon published 12 volumes of articles under the general title The Fundamentals, in which they were interpreted ^[12] .

Religious Protestant fundamentalism gained wide popularity in the southern states of the USA among groups of Presbyterians , Baptists and Methodists in the 1910s - 1912 . The ideologists of the movement rejected any attempts at criticism and the modernist interpretation of Scripture .

Since 1919, there has been the World Association of Fundamentalists, which in 1948 was renamed the International Council of Christian Churches , which unites about 140 Protestant organizations.

In the 1920s, fundamentalists held a series of speeches criticizing the evolutionist foundations that had won by that time in science, and in the southern states (for example, Tennessee , Arkansas , Mississippi , etc.) laws were passed prohibiting teaching in state schools of Darwin's theory of the origin of man (see The Monkey Process ).

An amendment to the law was passed in Tennessee in 1973 to allow Darwinism to be taught as a hypothesis along with a creationist biblical version.

Catholic fundamentalism

Catholic fundamentalists are very influential in the Christian world. These include, in particular, " Priestly Brotherhood of St. Pius X ”, founded in 1970 by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre . The conflict of Lefebvre with the official Vatican led to the excommunication of the archbishop from the church. No less famous is the organization “ Opus Dei ” (“God's work”), founded by Spaniard Escriva de Balaguer in 1928 and had a great influence on a number of right-wing political regimes of the 20th century in Europe and Latin America. The Militas Dei (Warriors of God) or the Catholic Counter-Reformation League (France) are also known.

Catholic fundamentalists oppose modernism , ecumenism, and the reformed divine services adopted by the Second Vatican Council . ^[13]

Orthodox fundamentalism

Candidate of Political Sciences K. N. Kostyuk believes that the emergence of Orthodox fundamentalism in Russia dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. At the public level, Jewish pogroms (1881, 1903) became its manifestation, and at the political level, the creation of the “ Union of the Russian People ”. Among the theorists of that time, he names Archimandrite Makarius (Gnevushev) , Archbishop Andronik (Nikolsky) , Fr. John Vostorgov , V. A. Gringmut , A. I. Dubrovin , N. E. Markov , V. M. Purishkevich . Moreover, he emphasizes that, compared with the religious at the same time in Russia, “manifestations of secular political fundamentalism on the part of the Socialist Revolutionaries and Bolsheviks practicing terrorist forms of struggle” were more aggressive. ^[five]

Kostyuk indicates that the 1980-1990s were noted as the second wave of growth in fundamentalist sentiments. In the political field, it was marked by the emergence of national-patriotic associations with Orthodox rhetoric (the first of which was the “Memory” Society ). If in the early stages a significant role for such associations was played by “ anti-Semitism , which remained in the bowels of Soviet culture ” and monarchist sentiment, then later “an independent religious factor” began to play the main role. A number of religious and social organizations of a fundamentalist nature operated in the country, such as “Brotherhood”, “Orthodoxy or Death”, “Society of Zealots of Metropolitan John ”, “Black Hundred”, “Slavic World”, “ Union of Orthodox Citizens ”, “Public Committee for moral revival of the fatherland ”, Christian-patriotic movement“ Alexander Nevsky ”. ^[five]

Kostyuk believes that the common foundations of modern Orthodox fundamentalism are: uncompromising anti-ecumenism (especially anti-sectarianism and anti-Catholicism); anti-liberalism, anti-individualism, criticism of “ Western values ”; statehood (sovereignty), support for national-patriotic movements. He calls the ideological pillars theocentrism , piety , Holy Tradition and tradition, following the truth of Scripture and the Holy Fathers , virtue and chastity , the concepts of the Christian state, people and the Homeland . ^[five]

According to Kostyuk, fundamentalist circles united around various Orthodox publications from “expressing an extremely radical and critical position” of the newspapers “ Sovereign Russia ” and “ Orthodox Russia ” to “focusing on constructive social activities (the organization of schools, kindergartens, etc.) ) ”Of the Radonezh newspaper and the Russian House magazine / television program. He admits that “the world of Orthodox fundamentalism is rich enough both intellectually and communicatively: a process of communication is constantly going on inside it, conferences, events, events like campaigns of the gonfalon bearers, etc. are organized” ^[5]

Kostyuk believes that fundamentalists achieved success when they took part in the activities of "wider participation of church or" patriotic "forces, to which he refers to the defense of the House of Soviets in 1993 , the requirement in 1997 to prohibit the screening of Martin Scorsese 's film" The Last Temptation of Christ ”, Support for the adoption of the new federal law“ On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations ”in the same year, as well as“ warlike statements during the crisis in Kosovo , church scandals and “revealing” campaigns. ” ^[5] At the same time, Kostyuk drew attention to the fact that such high hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church as Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexy II , Metropolitan of St. Petersburg and Ladoga Vladimir (Kotlyarov) , Metropolitan of Smolensky and Kaliningrad Kirill (Gundyaev) and Metropolitan of Minsk and Slutsk Filaret (Vakhromeev) “are being subjected to real aggressive persecution, if at other times not bullying” by the fundamentalists. ^[5] In turn, the religious scholar Yu. P. Chernomorets in 2011, expressed the opinion that Patriarch Kirill (Gundyaev) "largely because of the desire to keep Ukraine in the MP , moved to the position of extreme fundamentalism." ^[14]

In 2005, the director of the Sova Information and Analytical Center A.M. Verkhovsky expressed the opinion that at present, on the whole, supporters of radical fundamentalism in Orthodoxy comprise a minority of believers. ^[15]

Islamic fundamentalism

Currently, under the conditions of postcolonialism , Islam is observing “Islamic fundamentalism” - a trend that declares the need for Muslims to return to strict observance of the requirements of the Koran and other holy books in the religion, as well as “the liberation of Muslim lands from the colonialists ” ^[16] .

John Esposito in his book “The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?” Notes ^[17] :

The theory and practice of Islamic fundamentalism is diverse, this movement is characteristic of both the Sunni and Shiite trends of Islam. In some states, fundamentalists managed to achieve the adoption of their ideology as dominant, in particular, in the Islamic Republic of Iran ^[10] . In a number of other fundamentalist movements, they act as an opposition to existing secular or traditional state institutions, using the methods of terrorism as a method of dealing with individual fundamentalist groups.

The ideas of Islamic fundamentalism underlie political Islam ( Islamism ).

Islamic fascism

A categorical denial of liberal values ​​and a penchant for radical methods of struggle ^{[18] [19]} gave rise to a number of scholars, publicists and politicians to introduce the term "Islamofascism", which was first used by French writer and publicist Maxim Rodensson , who designated the regime of revolutionary Islamic dictatorship in Iran after the events of 1979 . ^[20] Some sources claim that the author of the term was the Italian writer Oriana Fallaci . ^[21]

The famous philosopher Francis Fukuyama in 2002 argued that today's “ conflict of civilizations ” is not just a fight against terrorism and not a fight against Islam as a religion or civilization, but rather a “fight against Islamofascism,” that is, a radically intolerant and anti-modern doctrine that denies the values ​​of Western civilization, which has recently spread in many parts of the Islamic world. ^{[22] [23]}

However, some well-known scientists and politicians criticize the use of this term. In particular, Yevgeny Primakov believes that there is Islamic extremism, but not Islamic fascism, since fascism is built on nationalism. ^[24] Some critics claim that the term is used for propaganda. ^{[25] [26]}

Jewish fundamentalism

Jewish fundamentalism is manifested in the activities of a number of organizations and political parties in Israel , advocating the organization of all life in the state in accordance with the religious laws of Judaism . ^[13] Some groups of Orthodox Jews (the so-called Haredim ) often conflict with representatives of the secular population of Israel over the latter's failure to observe strict religious restrictions. ^{[27] [28]} These groups often come into direct contact with the police. ^{[29] [30]}

There is also the ultra-radical Jewish organization Neturei Kart , which does not at all recognize Israel as a state due to the fact that it was founded before the coming of the Messiah .

Hindu fundamentalism

In India, there are several influential and numerous fundamentalist organizations based on the Hindu religion . In particular, “ Rastria Swayaysevak Sangh ” (“Union of Voluntary Ministers of the Nation” - RCC) has about 4 million members. RCC has its own paramilitary units and trade unions. In addition to the RCC, such a radical Hindu organization as Shiv Sena (Shiva Army) is also known. ^{[13] [31] [32]} and the radical youth organization Bajrang Dal (Squad of the Strong) ^[33] .

Scientists identify a number of ideologies of non-religious fundamentalism, for example, state-political, economic, nationalist, gender, feminist, environmental, market fundamentalism , etc. ^[34] Speaking about atheist fundamentalism, editor-in-chief of the journal “The State, Religion, Church in Russia and for abroad ”, candidate of philosophical sciences, associate professor of RANEPA D. A. Uzlaner notes:“ New atheists are a structural analogue of religious fundamentalists. These are anti-religious fundamentalists. In general, fundamentalism can also be understood outside the religious context. It arises as a response from the community, whose calm, comfortable, measured existence was shaken by radical social transformations. The foundation of fundamentalism is the desire to regain lost stability, restore the traveled coordinate system, uncompromising, a love of simple solutions, the search for solid, unshakable foundations, etc. ” ^[35] .

Fundamentalist is often called any approach that absolutizes certain views as the ultimate truth ^{[36] [37]} .

in Russian

• Gilbert A. 11 theses on the revival of Islamic fundamentalism. Free Marxist Publishing House, 2008
• Levin Z. I. Fundamentalism . M .: Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences , Kraft +, 2003, 264 p. ISBN 5-93675-051-5 , ISBN 5-89282-214-1
• Polyakov K.I. The Arab East and Russia: Problems of Islamic Fundamentalism . URSS editorial , 2003
• Savateev A. D. Islamic civilization in tropical Africa . M., 2006.
• Chelishchev V.I. Features of a fundamentalist worldview // Chelishchev V.I. The phenomenon of fundamentalism in the modern world: sources, essence and forms. M .: ISPI RAS , 2006. S. 4 - 56. ISBN 5-7556-0356-1 .
• Chelishchev V.I. Fundamentalism and fundamentalists. M .: RGSU , 2010.524 s. ISBN 978-5-7139-0742-6 .

in foreign languages

• Appleby, R. Scott, Gabriel Abraham Almond, and Emmanuel Sivan (2003). Strong Religion . Chicago: University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0-226-01497-5
• Armstrong K. (2001). The Battle for God : A History of Fundamentalism . New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-39169-1
• Becke A. Fundamentalismus in Indien? Säkularismus und Kommunalismus am Beispiel von Ayodhya , in: Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft und Religionswissenschaft, 78. Jahrgang, 1994, Heft 1, S. 3-24, ISSN 0044-3123
• Brasher, Brenda E. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism . New York: Routledge . ISBN 0-415-92244-5
• Caplan, Lionel. (1987). "Studies in Religious Fundamentalism." London: The MacMillan Press Ltd.
• Cabrera, Hashim Ibrahim. Fanatismo y religion: El Islam ante el fanatismo (Ponencia del Director de Verde Islam, Revista de Información y Análisis. Seminario "Libertad religiosa", celebrado en Córdoba los días 26 y 27 de julio de 1997).
• Casanova, José. Dimensiones Públicas de la Religión en las modernas sociedades occidentales . En: Iglesia Viva, No. 178-179, julio / octubre de 1995, pp. 395-410.
• Castells, M. (2006). Kimliğin Gücü c. 2., İBÜY Y., İstanbul
• Dorff, Elliot N. and Rosett, Arthur, A Living Tree; The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law , SUNY Press , 1988.
• Gellner, Ernest. Posmodernismo, razón y religión . Ediciones Paidós Ibérica SA, Barcelona, ​​1994.
• Gorenberg, Gershom. (2000). The End of Days: Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount. New York: The Free Press.
• Heywood, A. (2007). Siyasî İdeolojiler , Adres Yayınları, Ankara
• Hindery, Roderick. 2001. Indoctrination and Self-deception or Free and Critical Thought? Mellen Press: aspects of fundamentalism, pp. 69-74.
• Stephan Holthaus , Fundamentalismus in Deutschland: Der Kampf um die Bibel im Protestantismus des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts , 2. Aufl. Bonn: Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft, 2003. ( ISBN 3-932829-85-9 )
• Kepel, Gilles . Al Oeste de Alá, La penetración del Islam en Occidente . Ediciones Paidós Ibérica SA, Barcelona, ​​1995ª.
• Kepel, Gilles (Dir.). Las Políticas de Dios . Grupo Anaya & Mario Muchnik . Madrid 1995b.
• Lawrence, Bruce B. Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist Revolt against the Modern Age. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1989.
• Mardones, José María (Dir). 10 palabras clave sobre fundamentalismos . Editorial Verbo Divino, Estella (Navarra), 1999.
• Marsden; George M. (1980). Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925 Oxford University Press
• Marty, Martin E. and R. Scott Appleby (eds.). The Fundamentalism Project . Chicago: University of Chicago Press .
  • (1991). Volume 1: Fundamentalisms Observed . ISBN 0-226-50878-1
  • (1993). Volume 2: Fundamentalisms and Society . ISBN 0-226-50880-3
  • (1993). Volume 3: Fundamentalisms and the State . ISBN 0-226-50883-8
  • (1994). Volume 4: Accounting for Fundamentalisms . ISBN 0-226-50885-4
  • (1995). Volume 5: Fundamentalisms Comprehended . ISBN 0-226-50887-0
• Meyer, Thomas Fundamentalismus: Aufstand gegen die Moderne. Reinbek bei Hamburg 1989, ISBN 3-499-12414-9
• Mynarek H. Denkverbot - Fundamentalismus in Christentum und Islam . 1992, ISBN 3-926901-45-4
• Fundamentalisms observed . ME Marty , R. Scott Appleby (Hg.) (The Fundamentalism project; v. 1). University of Chicago Press , Chicago ua 1994, XVI, ISBN 0-226-50878-1
• Fundamentalisms and the State. Remaking Polities, Militance, and Economies . ME Marty , R. Scott Appleby (Hg.) (The Fundamentalism project; v. 3). University of Chicago Press , Chicago ua 1996, IX, ISBN 0-226-50884-6
• Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992.
• Pace, Enzo y GUOLO, Renzo. Los fundamentalismos . SIGLO XXI Editores. México, 2006.
• Palomino, Rafael. Laicidad, laicismo y ética pública , Athena Intelligence Journal , Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 77-97
• Patino, Carlos. Política e Identidad en el comienzo del Siglo XXI . Editorial UNIVERSIDAD PONTIFÍCIA BOLIVARIANA. Medellín, 1998
• Pfürtner, Stephan H. Fundamentalismus - Die Flucht ins Radikale. Herder, Freiburg 1991, ISBN 3-451-04031-X
• Riesebrodt, Martin Fundamentalismus als patriarchalische Protestbewegung: amerikanische Protestanten (1910-28) und iranische Schiiten (1961-79) im Vergleich . Tübingen 1990, ISBN 3-16-145669-6
• Ruthven, Malise (2005). Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 0-19-280606-8
• “Religious movements: fundamentalist.” In Goldstein, Norm (Ed.) (2003). The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law 2003 (38th ed.), P. 218. New York: The Associated Press . ISBN 0-917360-22-2 .
• Saleh, Waleed. El ala radical del Islam. El Islam político: realidad y ficción , Siglo XXI, Madrid, 2007.
• Clemens Six, Martin Riesebrodt, Siegfried Haas (Hg.): Religiöser Fundamentalismus. Vom Kolonialismus zur Globalisierung . StudienVerlag, Innsbruck ua 2004, ISBN 3-7065-4071-1
• Tamayo, Juán José. Fundamentalismos y diálogo entre religiones . Editorial TROTTA. Madrid, 2004.
• Torrey, RA (ed.). (1909). The Fundamentals . Los Angeles: The Bible Institute of Los Angeles (BIOLA now Biola University ). ISBN 0-8010-1264-3

• Traditionalism
• Modernism
• Market fundamentalism

• Religious Ideology: Fates and Perspectives
• A selection of books on the topic
• The Fundamentalist Distortion of the Islamic Message by Syed Manzar Abbas Saidi, published in Athena Intelligence Journal
• Women Against Fundamentalism (UK )
• International Coalition Against Political Islam
• Résister et s'opposer aux fondamentalismes religieux initiative stratégique de l'AWID (fr.)