Particle detector

Outdated

• Bubble chamber
• Wilson's Chamber
• Spark chamber

Radiation Protection Detectors

Detectors for nuclear and particle physics

• Hodoscopic cameras
  • Ionization calorimeter
  • Proportional Camera
  • Spark chamber
  • Time-of-flight counter
  • Rich
  • Transition radiation detector
• Counters
  • Optical counters
    • Scintillation counter
    • Cherenkov radiation detector
  • Solid state meters
    • Semiconductor detector
    • Crystal detector
  • Gas filled counters
    • Gas ionization detector
    • Ionization chamber
    • Proportional camera
    • Geiger-Muller counter
    • Spark detector
• Track detectors
  • Diffusion chamber
  • Streamer camera
  • Time Projection Camera
  • Microstrip Chamber
• Mass analyzers
  • Mass separator
  • Mass spectrometer
  • Mass spectrograph

In elementary particle physics, the concept of “detector” refers not only to various types of sensors for detecting particles, but also to large installations created on their basis and also including infrastructure for maintaining their operability (cryogenic systems, air conditioning, power supply systems), electronics for reading and primary data processing, auxiliary systems (e.g. superconducting solenoids to create a magnetic field inside the unit). As a rule, such installations are now being created by large international groups.

Since the construction of a large installation requires significant financial costs and human effort, in most cases it is used not for one specific task, but for a whole range of different measurements. The main requirements for a modern detector for experiments on an accelerator are:

• High efficiency (low percentage of lost particles or particles with poorly defined parameters)
• The ability to separate various types of particles formed in decay ( pions , kaons , protons , etc.)
• The ability to accurately measure the momentum of charged particles to restore the invariant mass of unstable states.
• The ability to accurately measure photon energy.

For specific problems, additional requirements may be required, for example, for experiments measuring CP violation in the B-meson system, the coordinate resolution in the beam interaction region plays an important role.

The need to fulfill these conditions leads to the typical today scheme of a universal multilayer detector. In English literature, such a scheme is usually compared with the onion-like structure. In the direction from the center (the region of interaction of the beams) to the periphery, a typical detector for an accelerator on oncoming beams consists of the following systems:

Track system

The track system is designed to register the trajectory of the passage of a charged particle: coordinates of the interaction region, departure angles. In most detectors, the track system is placed in a magnetic field, which leads to a curvature of the motion paths of charged particles and allows one to determine their momentum and sign of charge.

A track system is typically based on gas ionization detectors or silicon semiconductor detectors.

Identification System

The identification system allows you to separate from each other various types of charged particles. The principle of operation of identification systems most often consists in measuring the speed of flight of a particle in one of three ways:

• by the angle of radiation of Cherenkov light in a special radiator (as well as by the very fact of the presence or absence of Cherenkov radiation),
• by time of flight to the registration point,
• by specific ionization density of a substance.

Together with measuring the momentum of a particle in a track system, this gives information about the mass, and, consequently, about the type of particle.

Calorimeter

The calorimeter is designed to measure the energy of particles by their complete absorption. This is the only way to detect photons (since they are not charged and therefore do not leave traces in the track system). Photons and electrons form an electromagnetic shower in matter and, thus, are completely absorbed. The released energy can be measured either by the magnitude of the scintillation light flash (scintillation calorimeters), or by counting shower particles (sampling calorimeters).

Muon system

The muon system can be attributed to the identification system, but technically it is implemented separately in the external part of the detector. Most often, it is embedded in iron, which closes the magnetic flux of the solenoid of the track system. The muon system makes it possible to separate muons by their ability to travel large distances in matter without absorption (this is a consequence of the fact that the muon does not experience nuclear interaction ).

List of working or under construction detectors for oncoming beam accelerators

• Detectors at the LHC Collider ( CERN )
  • ATLAS
  • CMS
  • Lhcb
  • Alice
• Detectors at the Tevatron Collider
  • Cdf
  • D0
• Detectors on electron-positron colliders
  • BaBar (PEP-II Collider, SLAC )
  • Belle (collider KEKB, KEK)
  • BES (BEPC Collider, Beijing)
  • CLEO ( CESR Collider)
  • KEDR (VEPP-4 collider, Institute of Nuclear Physics SB RAS , Novosibirsk)
  • KMD, SND (VEPP-2M collider, VEPP-2000 , Institute of Nuclear Physics SB RAS , Novosibirsk)

In addition to scientific experiments, elementary particle detectors are also used in applied tasks - in medicine (low-dose x-ray machines, tomographs , radiation therapy ), materials science ( flaw detection ), for pre-flight screening of passengers and baggage at airports.

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• B. S. Ishkhanov, I. M. Kapitonov, E. I. Kabin, Web-publication based on the manual B. S. Ishkhanov, I. M. Kapitonov, E. I. Kabin. “Particles and nuclei. Experiment ”, Moscow: MSU Publishing House, 2005.
• The Particle Detector BriefBook
• How to build a cloud chamber
• Grupen, C. (June 28-July 10 1999). "Physics of Particle Detection". AIP Conference Proceedings, Instrumentation in Elementary Particle Physics, VIII 536 : 3–34, Istanbul: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co .. DOI : 10.1063 / 1.1361756 .  
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• Nikolaev, V. A. Solid-state track detectors in radiation research / Nikolaev, V. A. .. - SPb. : Publishing house Polytechnic. University, 2012 .-- 284 p. - ISBN 978-5-7422-3530-9 .

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• Akimov, Yu. K. Gas detectors of nuclear radiation. - Dubna : JINR, 2011 .-- 243 p. - ISBN 978-5-9530-0272-1 .