History of Kiev

Archaeological excavations show that settlements on the territory of the Kiev region already existed in the Upper Paleolithic 20-25 thousand years ago ( Kirillovskaya site ) ^[1] . The period of the Aeneolithic ( Copper Age ) is represented by the Tripoli culture (finds of Vikentiy Khvoyka on Kirillovskaya St. , 55) ^[2] , the monuments and periods of which the researchers divide into three stages: the early (4500–3500), middle (3500–2750) and late ( 2750-2000 BC. E.). For the south-west of the Kiev region in the period of the Bronze Age Belogrudovskaya culture is characteristic. Zarubintsy culture is characteristic of the north-west of the Kiev region of the second half of I millennium BC. e. - first half of I mil. N. e. ^[3] The layers of the Zarubintsy culture were found on most of the heights of the future of ancient Russian Kiev, but the only settlement of Zarubintsy that functioned in the 3rd — 4th centuries was on the first floodplain terrace of the northern outskirts of Obolon (natural habitat Meadow IV) ^[4] . The Iron Age on the territory of modern Kiev and the Kiev region is represented by the Chernyakhov archeological culture ^[5] , which existed at the turn of the II — III centuries. - the turn of the IV — V centuries. in the forest-steppe and steppe from the Lower Danube region in the west to the left bank of the Dnieper and Chernihiv region in the east ^[6] . The oldest settlements of this archaeological culture on St. Andrew’s Hill date from the 2nd to 3rd centuries of our era ^[7] . In Kiev, fragments of Chernyakhov pottery were found on the terrace of Zamkova Gora in the cultural layer preceding the layer with ceramics of onion-Raykovetsky culture ^[4] .

The toponym "Kiev" has not received a clear explanation in science. According to the chronicle, the name of the city comes from the name of its founder. In The Tale of Bygone Years of the early 12th century, it is said that Kiev was founded by the three brothers Kyi, Schek and Horeb and sister Lybed as the center of the Polyan tribe. Named after the elder brother. The city at that time consisted of a prince's court and a terem. A variant of the same legend is given in the composition of the Armenian author Zenob Glak (“The History of Taron”), which refers to the founding of Kuar (Kiev) in the country of Poluni (glade) by Kuar, Mentei and Herean ^[8] .

Popular etymology explains the name of Kiev by the fact that its first inhabitants were workers (Kiyans, Kiyans) who served the crossing of the Dnieper. The crossing was a wooden flooring on poles (cues) driven into the bottom. Similar place names are known in other Slavic lands (for example, Kiyevo in Croatia , Kuyavia in Poland ). Harvard scientist Omelyan Pritsak considered the origin of the toponym Turkic or Jewish ^[9] . G. Vernadsky ^{[10] [11]} also shared the idea of ​​the foundation of the city by the Khazars .

In the chronicle of M. Stryikovsky in the third chapter of the 11th book, which briefly describes the history of Vladimir, Lutsk and Kiev principalities before the rule of Gedimin, it is stated that the city of Kiev was founded by Prince Kiy in 430 ^[12] . The city founded by Kiy and his brothers was such an insignificant settlement that the chronicler writes “hail” (town) ^[13] .

The results of archaeological excavations show that already in the 6th – 7th centuries on the right bank of the Dnieper there were settlements that some researchers interpreted as urban. The remains of fortifications, dwellings, ceramics of the 6th — 7th centuries, Byzantine coins of the emperors Anastasius I (491–518) and Justinian I (527–565), amphoras, and numerous jewelry were discovered ^{[14] [15]} . This concept, supported by the celebration of the 1,500th anniversary of Kiev in 1982, was regarded as generally accepted. However, in contrast to the “anniversary concept”, a significant part of historians and archaeologists believe, as before, that the formation of Kiev as a city took place at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries, citing archeological data ^[16] ; at the same time, he sees no grounds for a statement about the genetic continuity of the city and settlements of the 5th — 8th centuries ^[4] .

The earliest complexes of Prague culture (“Korchak-type”) of the end of the 4th - the first half of the 6th century were found in the north of Obolon in the meadow Meadow IV on a large dune in the Dnieper floodplain, on the slope of Starokievskaya Mountain ^[17] and in the Krivtsov manor.

In a dwelling of the 7th — 8th centuries, open on the north-western slope of the Starokievskaya mountain, a furnace, stucco pottery, a spinning-bed with a trident, fish and bird bones were found. Molded ceramics has much in common with the early ceramic complexes from Plesneska and other settlements of the Dnieper and Pobya ^{[18] [19]} . At the turn of the 7th – 8th centuries, Kiev was an ordinary settlement in terms of socio-economic development compared with the synchronous Pastoral Settlement and could not be a “tribal center”, as in the subsequent Volyntsev period ^[4] . The treasure of the Pastoral Settlement and the deep penetration of nomads-bearers of the Pereshchepina culture into the forest-steppe, which reached Kiev region, is associated with the Kiev treasure , found in 1892. The Slavic population of the settlement on Starokievskaya mountain at that time was associated with the “pastoral Penkovsky ” area, and not with Prague ^[20] .

The layers of the Volyntsevo culture of the middle of the VIII - beginning of the IX century were found on the Starokievskaya mountain and under the northern gallery of the Tithe Church. In the first third of the 9th century, the Volyntsevo settlement on Starokievsky Mountain burned down, possibly simultaneously with the neighboring Khodovka I and Obukhov II, as well as the more distant Bititsky settlement ^[21] .

In the second half of the 9th century, settlements of onion-raykovetskaya culture appeared on the territory of the future Kiev. The largest in the second half of the 9th century was an unfortified settlement of onion-raykovetskaya culture on Zamkova Gora (2.5 hectares), completely isolated from the rest of the Kiev Mountains array. The rest of the very small onion-raykovetsky settlements surrounded the Zamkovaya mountain (Kiselevka) with a ring: the settlement Kudryavets from the west, the settlement on the Detinka hill and the settlement on Starokievskaya mountain (1.5 hectares) from the south, the settlement on Mount Vozdyhalitsa from the east ^[4] . It is possible that the site of ancient settlement on Starokievskaya Hill was both a sanctuary and a refuge settlement in relation to Kiselevka ^{[22] [23]} .

In the 880s, Podol appeared , northerners obeyed and partly moved to Kiev, a kurgan cemetery begins to form on Starokievskaya Hill (Necropolis I ^[24] ) ^[21] . At the end of the 9th century - the first half of the 10th century, a small group of northerners of Romen culture occupied the terrace below the settlement on the northern slope of Starokievskaya mountain. Complexes from Romensky culture are also open in the lower layers of the Podol manor on the Life Market ^[4] . The earliest Kiev dendrodate in one of Podol’s buildings dates back to 887 ^[25] .

On the hill, St. Andrew’s Mountain , located east of Starokievskaya, in the Petrovsky estate at Andrew’s Descent No. 36-38 in 1907-1908, V. V. Khvoyka excavated and announced the discovery of a pagan sanctuary , made of dry, unhewn stones, south of the temple site in his opinion, the altar was located ^{[26] [27]} . However, the composition of the “kapisch” stones is similar to the basement material of the Tithe Church, including red quartzite from the Ovruch area, and the layer on which the pavement was laid included fragments of thin-walled pottery not earlier than the second half of the 10th century. And the so-called "altar" and the untouched layer over the "temple" - materials of the XI-XII centuries. The foundation of the unknown building, discovered on Starokievskaya Hill in 1975 on the territory of the “ city ​​of Vladimir ” (Vladimirskaya st., No. 3) and declared to be the remnant of the “pantheon” created by Vladimir Svyatoslavich in 980, turned out to be part of the foundation of the gate with a gate church of the XII century , which were part of a single complex with a rotunda found near it and built using the Decantine Church of the late 10th century together with fragments of the 12th century plinths ^{[4] [28]} .

In the necropolis on Starokievskaya Hill, the felling of chamber burials was built in two techniques: cutting the corners of the log cabins: "in the rub" and "in the paw." In some cases, in Kiev, Gnezdov , Shestovitsy , Chernihiv and Timerevo, researchers have noted the existence of chambers that are different from both the log cabin and column structures ^[29] . In most of the burials of the late 9th - early 10th century in Kiev and the Middle Dnieper, the body of the deceased was placed in a grave pit with its head to the west. In the seven chamber burials of Kiev, Caroling-type swords were found ^[24] . According to the character and details of the funeral rites, they have direct analogies in the monuments on the territory of Great Moravia in the Old Town , Mikulčice , Poganjsko (near Břeclav ), Skalice, Old Kouřim, Kolin and Zhelenki ^[30] . Direct analogies in the burials of the nobility testify to the ethnocultural affinity of the ruling elite of Kiev and the Carpathian Rusyns ^[31] . Borzhivoy Got, noting the similarity of inventory, wrote about the full identity of the burial graves of Kiev and Chernigov burials in Great Moravia ^[32] . Archaeologists A. N. Kirpichnikov, G. S. Lebedev, V. A. Bulkin, I. V. Dubov came to the conclusion that in the Kiev necropolis there is only one Scandinavian burial of 146 - a pillar-shaped burial with a northern orientation number 114, dated by the end of X — the beginning of the XI century ^{[33] [34]} .

At the beginning of the 10th century, a special trade and handicraft center with a city-site and a grave adjacent to it, stretching along the foot of the Kirillov Heights, is formed over the flood plain of Pochaina on Yurkowice (Lysa Hora) , behind the floodplain of Pochaina , the burial rite of which is identical to the burial rites of Starokyiv grief ^[35] . The settlement of the 10th – 11th century on Yurkowice (Lysa Hora) was an outpost protecting Kiev from the northwest ^[24] .

For most of the 9th century, Kiev was in an unstable zone of the Hungarian-Khazar conflict. According to the "Tale of Bygone Years" in the second half of the 9th century , the retainers of the Varyag Rurik , Askold and Dir , who liberated the glades from the Khazar dependence, reigned in Kiev. Kiev is already in the role of the center of the land of the field (“Polish Land”), and the chronicler calls it not “a city”, but a “city” ^[13] .

In 882 ^{[nb 1]} Kiev was conquered by Novgorod prince Oleg , who transferred his residence there, saying: “Behold the city of Ruski”. From that moment on, Kiev became the capital of the Old Russian state (Kievan Rus). At the same time, it is necessary to increase the scale of construction on the territory of Kiev, as evidenced by archaeological materials found in the Upper Town , on Podol , on Kirillovskaya Gora, Pechersk . Construction was due to the rapid increase in the number of the city’s population, which arrived from different regions of Russia ^[14] . During the migration from the Volga region to the banks of the Danube at the end of the 9th century , Hungarians stopped in the territory of modern Kiev:

The chronicler, telling about the arrival of the Drevlian ambassadors to Princess Olga , writes that “Then the water flowed near the Kievskaya mountain and people did not live on Podol, but on the mountain. The city of Kiev was where the Gordyatin and Nikiforov yard now was, and the prince's yard was in the city where Vorotislavl and Chyudin courtyard now was, and the yard was outside the city, and the yard was outside the city, where the yard of demestik is behind the Holy Theotokos above the mountain, the yard teremny, because there was a stone terem ” ^[13] .

Only at the end of the 10th century ^[13] did separate settlements merge into a single urban settlement ^[36] .

One of the first documents mentioning the name of Kiev (Qiyyo b ) is the Kiev letter written in the 10th century by the local Jewish community ^[10] . In the Arabic writings of the same period ( Ibn Haukal , Istahri, and others), Kiev ( Kuyaba ) appears as the center of one of the Rus groups, along with Novgorod ( al-Slavia ) and Arseniy (the last item is not clear) ^{[37] [38]} . In the other part of the narrative of the same authors, Kiev is opposed to the Rus, which probably reflects the earlier state of affairs. In the Byzantine treatise “ On Empire Management ”, Kiev appears under the non-Slavic, possibly Khazar, name Samvatas , which, according to one interpretation, means “upper fortifications” ^{[nb 2]} . According to one of the hypotheses, the designated fortifications (or their core ) were geographically located at the mouth of the Lybid , near the Kiev shipyard shipyard , as a fleet berth, gathering and equipping naval military and trade expeditions ^[40] .

Since the capture of the city by Oleg and to the middle of the XIII century, Kiev was the capital of Russia. The Grand Dukes of Kiev traditionally had supremacy over the princes of other Russian lands, and the Kiev table was the main goal in the intra-dynastic rivalries. In 968, the city withstood the siege of the Pechenegs , in which there was a merit of the fortified outposts of Kiev, the largest of which was Vyshgorod ^[41] . Chronicle mentions of this fortress city are interrupted after the invasion of Batu in 1240.

In 988, by order of Prince Vladimir , city residents were baptized in the Dnieper . Russia became a Christian state, the Kiev Metropolis was founded, which existed in the all-Russian borders until 1458. In 990, construction began on the first stone church in Russia . According to church tradition, it was built on the site of the murder of the first martyrs Theodore and his son John ^[42] . The church was destroyed by the hordes of Batu Khan during a raid on Kiev in 1240.

In the 9th — 10th centuries, the city was built up with quarters of log and frame-pillar structures; the princely part also had stone houses. At the Hem, as the Tale of Bygone Years testifies, in the first half of the 10th century a Christian church operated — the congregational church of the holy prophet Elijah ^[14] .

During the reign of Vladimir, Kiev approximately a third consisted of princely lands on which the palace was located. The city of Vladimir was surrounded by an earthen wall and a moat. The central entrance was the stone Gradsky (later - Sofia, Batu) gate. The territory of the city of Vladimir occupied about 10-12 hectares. The shafts of the city of Vladimir were based on wooden structures and have not survived to this day ^[43] .

At that time, Kiev maintained extensive international relations: with Byzantium , Eastern countries, Scandinavia, Western Europe. Convincing evidence of this is contained in written sources, as well as in archaeological materials: about 11,000 Arab dirhems of the 7th – 10th centuries, hundreds of Byzantine and Western European coins, Byzantine amphoras and many other artifacts of foreign origin were found in Kiev’s territory ^[14] .

After the death of Prince Vladimir, his son, Boris , was to take the throne, according to the will. ^[44] However, another son of Vladimir, Svyatopolk , organized the murder of Boris and the second probable heir, Gleb ^[45] . Nevertheless, Svyatopolk was defeated by the troops of Yaroslav the Wise in the battle of Lyubech and lost his Kiev reign. He asked the Polish king Boleslav I for help. He agreed and took a trip to Kiev. Having smashed the troops of Yaroslav the Wise on the shores of the Bug, Boleslav and Svyatopolk entered Kiev. But the people of Kiev did not accept the new prince. In 1018 an uprising took place, as a result of which Yaroslav was returned to the throne.

According to the German Titmar of Merseburg, Kiev at the beginning of the XI century was a big city, with 400 temples and 8 trading places. In the early seventies of the eleventh century, Adam of Bremen called him “a rival of Constantinople” ^[46] . Kiev reached its “golden age” in the middle of the XI century under Yaroslav the Wise. The city has increased significantly in size. In addition to the princely court, there were the courts of the other sons of Vladimir and other high-ranking officials (about ten in total) on its territory. There were three entrances to the city: the Golden Gate, the Lyadsky Gates, the Jewish Gates. On the construction of the city ​​of Yaroslav chronicles mention under 1037 year.

The city of Yaroslav was located on an area of ​​over 60 hectares, was surrounded by a moat with a depth of 12 m and a high shaft 3.5 km long, 30 m wide at the base, with a total height with a wooden paling up to 16 m ^[47] .

During the reign of Yaroslav the Wise, St. Sophia Cathedral was built with numerous frescoes and mosaics , the most famous of which is the Mother of God Oranta ^[48] . In 1051, Prince Yaroslav gathered bishops in the Sofia Cathedral and elected the local native Hilarion to be the metropolitan, thereby demonstrating confessional independence from Byzantium . In the same year, the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was founded by the monk Anthony of Pechersk . Co-founder of the Pechersk monastery was one of the first students of Anthony - Theodosius . Prince Svyatoslav II Yaroslavich presented a plateau above the caves to the monastery, where later stone temples decorated with paintings, cells, fortress towers and other buildings grew. The names of the chronicler Nestor , the artist Alipy ^[49] are associated with the monastery. In 1054 the split of the Christian church took place, but Kiev managed to maintain good relations with Rome ^[50] .

The third in time of the appearance of the old Kiev was the so-called city ​​of Izyaslav-Svyatopolk , the center of which was the Mikhailovsky Golden-domed monastery . From the Starokievsky plateau it was separated by a ravine-beam, along which, according to one of the versions, the chronicle collection of Borichev, where the old Russian customs once was, passed. In 1068, a veche performance was organized against Izyaslav after the defeat of the Russian troops in the battle with the Polovtsi on the Alta River. As a result, Izyaslav was forced to flee to Poland, Vseslav Bryachislavich temporarily occupied the throne ^[51] .

The third quarter of the 11th century (1050–1075) dates from the Novgorod birch bark No. 915, which mentions Kiev ^[52] .

After the death of Kiev Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1113), a popular uprising took place in Kiev; the tops of Kiev society called for the reign of Vladimir Monomakh (May 4, 1113). Having become a prince of Kiev, he suppressed the uprising, but at the same time he was forced by law to somewhat soften the position of the lower classes. Thus, the “ Charter of Vladimir Monomakh ” or the “ Charter of the Cuts ” was created, which became part of the expanded version of the “ Russian Truth ”. This statute limited the profits of the usurers, defined the conditions of enslavement and, without encroaching on the foundations of feudal relations, eased the position of debtors and procurements ^[53] .

The ancient Slavic capital of the reigns of Yaroslavlich and Vladimir Monomakh personified the lack of solidity and construction in buildings, on the contrary, it was only in ancient Kiev that the design of streets and squares were applied for the first time, taking into account the legislative framework governing the aesthetic side of housing ^[54] . The largest district of ancient Kiev was Podol. Its area in the XII-XIII centuries was 200 hectares (the area of ​​the entire city of the XI-XIII centuries was estimated by P. P. Tolochko to be about 400 hectares, and the population reached 50 thousand people ^[55] ). He was also known for his fortifications, the so-called pillars, which are mentioned in the chronicles of the XII century. In the center of Podol there was a chronicle “Torgovishche”, around which stood monumental religious buildings: the church of Pirogoshch (1131–1135), the Borisoglebsk and St. Michael’s churches. The massive building of Kiev was predominantly wooden, it consisted of quarters of log and frame-pillar buildings, mainly two-story. The layout of the city was a manor-street ^[14] .

The economic basis of the city were: agricultural production, craft, and trade. On the territory where the districts of ancient Kiev were located, were found the remains of workshops, articles made of clay, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, stone, bone, glass, wood and other materials. They testify that in the 12th century artisans of more than 60 specialties worked in Kiev ^[14] .

In Russia, the possession of the Kiev Grand-Ducal table belonged (at least theoretically) to the eldest of the family and ensured supreme power over the princes. Kiev remained the real political center of the Russian land, at least until the death of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav the Great (in 1132). The rise of individual lands with their own dynasties during the XII century undermined the political importance of the city, gradually turning it into an honorary prize for the most powerful prince and, accordingly, into an apple of discord. Unlike other lands, in Kiev principality did not develop its own dynasty. The main struggle for it was between the princes of the four Russian principalities: Vladimir-Suzdal, Volyn, Smolensk and Chernigov. A serious blow was struck to Kiev by the Allied army of the Russian prince Andrey Bogolyubsky in 1169 ^[56] . For the first time in the period of civil strife, Kiev was taken by assault and plundered. Two days Suzdal, Smolensk and Chernigov looted and burned the city, palaces and temples. In monasteries and churches they took away not only jewels, but also icons, crosses, bells, robe. Following this, the Vladimir princes also began to bear the title of "greats". The link between the recognition of elders in the princely family and the possession of Kiev from that moment became optional. Very often, the princes seized by Kiev chose not to remain in it themselves, but to give to their dependent relatives. In 1203 Kiev was captured and burned by Smolensk prince Rurik Rostislavovich and allied Rurik Polovtsy. During the internecine wars of the 1230s, the city was besieged and ravaged several times, passing from hand to hand ^[57] . At the time of the Mongol campaign on South Rus, the prince of Kiev was a representative of the older branch of the Monomakh family: Daniel Galitsky ^[58] .

Mongol invasion and the power of the Golden Horde (1240–1362)

In December 1240, Kiev was taken and ravaged as a result of the Mongol siege ^{[59] [60]} , during which a large number of citizens were killed and many buildings, including the Tithe Church, were destroyed. From 1241 to 1243 in Kiev, the rules of Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich Chernigovsky, then Yaroslav Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky received a label on Kiev in the Horde and was recognized as the supreme ruler of all Russian lands, "all the old prince in the Russian language." From 1246 to 1263 , his son Alexander Nevsky was Grand Prince of Kiev. Both Prince of Vladimir ruled Kiev from North-Eastern Russia through the governor, thereby completing the lengthy process of moving the nominal capital of Russia from Kiev to Vladimir ^[61] .

In 1262 the Kiev feeding book was created, which became the prototype of Volyn, Ryazan and other feeding books ^[14] .

In fact, Kiev, defeated by the Mongols, lost both economic and political importance, followed by a spiritual monopoly: in 1299 the Kiev Metropolitan Maxim left for Vladimir , from which the Metropolitan was then transferred to Moscow. The main core of the city (Mountain and Hem) was within the traditional limits. After the construction of the wooden-earthen Kiev castle, the Zamkova Gora turned into a city Detinets. The main population at that time was concentrated on Podol, here were the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary and the city bargaining, and later - the magistrate with the town hall ^[14] .

The Mongols did not seek to destroy the city completely. The main reason for the gradual death of most of the structures that survived in 1240 was that, as a result of the Mongolian defeat of the ancient Russian state system and the destruction of the economic base of the city - Middle Dnieper, as well as the establishment of the Golden Horde yoke, Kiev had no means to maintain a large number of stone structures. Only a few temples survived, which found economic support: St. Sophia, Assumption, Vydubitsky, St. Michael's Golden-domed Cathedral, St. Cyril's Cathedral, Church of the Assumption ^[14] .

The history of the principality of Kiev in the second half of the XIII - the first half of the XIV centuries is poorly known. They were ruled by local provincial princes, who did not lay claim to general Russian rule. In 1324 the Kiev Prince Stanislav was defeated in the battle on the Irpin by the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Gediminas . Since that time, the city was in the sphere of Lithuanian influence, but the payment of tribute to the Golden Horde continued for several decades ^[62] .

In 1362, after the battle on the Blue Waters, Kiev finally became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Vladimir Olgerdovich became the prince of Kiev. Entry was a peaceful diplomatic way. Vladimir led an independent policy, minted his own coin, which, however, led to his replacement in 1394 on the principality of Skirgaylom Olgerdovich , and after the death of the latter - to establish governorship. At the end of the 14th - the beginning of the 15th century, Kiev was a political center where the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt , the King of Poland and the High Prince of Lithuania Vladislav II Yagailo , the Grand Prince of Moscow Vasily Dmitrievich, Metropolitan Cyprian, Fotiy, Gregory (Tsamblak), and Khan Tokhtamysh were negotiating . The city became the main base of the army of Vitovt, which launched an offensive against the Golden Horde, but was defeated in 1399 in Vorskla . Khan Timur-Kutluk then laid siege to Kiev, but did not take it, having received a ransom from the people of Kiev ^[14] .

In the 14th century, a castle with wooden fortifications and towers was built in the center of Kiev, and the only tower clock in the city was located in the castle. The castle served as the residence of three Kiev princes: Vladimir Olgerdovich , his son Olelko and grandson Semyon ^[63] .

In 1416, Kiev was ravaged by the troops of the Golden Horde emir Edigei , who could not take only the city castle. After the death of Vitovt in 1430, Kiev became the main base of the “Russian party” of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Svidrigail . Kievans actively participated in the fight against the Lithuanian center. In 1436, the Kiev voivode Yursha defeated Lithuanian troops near the city ^[14] .

From the end of the 14th century, the names of students from Kiev appear in the lists of the Paris Sorbonne and other universities; under the year 1436, the first doctor of the “Ruthenian nation from Kiev” —Ivan Tinkevich — was named ^[14] .

In 1440, the principality of Kiev was restored, at the head of which was Prince Olelko Vladimirovich . In 1455-1470 years in Kiev, Prince Semen Olelkovich . Both princes enjoyed prestige and had dynastic ties with the great princes of Moscow and Tver, the Moldovan ruler Stephen III the Great . The time of their rule was a period of development for Kiev: the reconstruction of the Assumption Cathedral and other churches was carried out, stone bas-reliefs depicting Oranta were created, as well as new editions of Paterik Kiev-Pechersk and other written sources. After the division of the all-Russian metropolis into the Moscow and Lithuanian parts in the middle of the XV century, Kiev became the center of the latter. Kiev continued to be an important center for domestic and international trade. A lot of goods were transiting through the city from the East, Europe, from the Grand Duchy of Moscow. This was facilitated, in particular, by the fact that the Lithuanian authorities guaranteed security to caravans that moved through the South Russian lands only when their routes passed through Kiev ^[14] .

However, after the death of Semen Olelkovich, Casimir IV , seeing in Kiev the potential center of the new consolidation of the Russian lands, in order to prevent this, he finally abolished the principality of Kiev, turning it into a voivodship ^[64] . Kiev's attempt to prevent the governor Martin Gashtold from entering the city, the plot of princes of 1481 headed by Prince Mikhail Olelkovich , as well as the later uprising of Prince Mikhail Glinsky in 1508 ended in failure ^[14] .

Depriving the southern Russian lands of the remnants of their independence had a negative effect on their defense capability ^[64] . In 1482, Kiev underwent a devastating raid on the troops of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray , as a result of which he was plundered, many citizens were killed, and the shrines were destroyed. In 1494-1497 Kiev received city rights ( Magdeburg Law ) ^[65] . After the Union of Lublin in 1569, he was transferred to the Polish crown lands .

Reinhold Heydenshtein, who visited Kiev at the end of the 16th century, wrote that a large part of the city, numerous Orthodox churches and ancient monuments lay in ruins, testifying to the former pomp and grandeur of the city. Of the surviving temples, he called only the Church of St. Sophia and the Church of St. Michael, which, however, remained in such a "pitiful form" that they did not hold worship services. Life in his modern Kiev was warming above all in Podol , and not inside the old walls of the Upper City located on a hill. Kiev merchants, according to him, were engaged in “very profitable” trade with Moscow along the Dnieper and Desna ^[66] .

In 1596, the Kiev Orthodox Metropolis enters the union with Rome. As part of the acute struggle of the Uniates and the Orthodox, the role of the city as the spiritual center of Orthodoxy has increased again. Under the Archimandrites Elisey Pletenetsky and Zechariah Kopystensky in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, in 1616 a printing house was founded and the printing of liturgical and polemical books began, with this printing-house in 1627, Pamvo Berynda published the “Lexicon of Slavonic Albo Names Interpretation” ^[67] . Peter the Grave started a school here, which was later merged with the brotherly school and served as the beginning of the Kiev-Mohyla College ^[68] .

After Pereyaslavska on the square in front of the ancient Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Pirogogoshch, the population of Kiev took the oath to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich . A Russian garrison of archers and a reiter , which kept the city throughout all the vicissitudes of the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667, was deployed in Kiev. Voivod Vasily Sheremetev repeatedly repulsed the attacks of Hetman Ivan Vyhovsky ^[69] . After the capitulation of Sheremetev near Chudnov ^[70] , voivod Yury Baryatinsky, contrary to the agreements signed by Sheremetev, refused to surrender Kiev to the Poles, who were never able to achieve the capture of the city by force.

From 1648 - and until 1708, the city ​​of Kiev was the regimental center of the Kiev regiment - the administrative-territorial and military unit of the Hetmanate (the Kiev regiment was formed on October 27, 1625 , but only after the uprising of the Khmelnytsky and Zborovsky agreements became an administrative-territorial unit) ^[71] .

On November 29 ( December 9 ), 1665 , Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich confirmed the Magdeburg law for the townspeople of the city of Kiev , granted to him by the kings of the Commonwealth ^[82] .

On January 30 ( February 9 ), 1667 , the Andrusiv truce was concluded, under the terms of which Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth gave way to Smolensk and Left-Bank Ukraine in favor of the Russian kingdom . Kiev was initially ceded temporarily, then, according to the Eternal Peace of 1686, constantly for 146 thousand rubles of compensation for the Commonwealth. No other of the Polish-Russian treaties relating to Kiev has ever been ratified ^[73] .

At the end of the XVII century, the territory of Kiev was located only on the right bank of the Dnieper. The city had a shape stretched along the coast. Three separated parts of the city stood out: the Lower City (Podil), where the academy and the fraternal church were located; Upper Town with St. Sophia Cathedral and St. Michael Monastery; Pechersk, the eastern part of which was defended by defensive walls of laurels. Intensive urban construction was due to the patronage of Ivan Mazepa ^[74] . In fact, these three separate territories merged into a monolithic urban formation only in the XIX century.

The XVIII century becomes the century of intensive development of the city and the appearance of many of its architectural masterpieces. In 1701, the central building of the Vydubitsky monastery , St. George's Church, one of the prominent sights of Ukrainian baroque, was built in Kiev. In the Elizabethan era, under the leadership of the Moscow architect Ivan Michurin , two more Baroque buildings were built in Kiev by the project of Bartolomeo Rastrelli : the Mariinsky Palace and St. Andrew’s Church . Significant restructuring in the style of Ukrainian Baroque are the ancient temples and monasteries of Kievan Rus: St. Sophia Cathedral , St. Michael’s Golden-Domed Monastery , Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. In the latter, among other things, the Assumption Cathedral was renewed, the Great Lavra Bell Tower was erected - the tallest building in the city. In 1772, according to the plan of the architect Ivan Grigorovich-Barsky ^[75] , the Orthodox Church of the Intercession was built on Podol.

On March 10, 1708, the Field Marshal-General of Count B. P. Sheremetev, the regiment received the name "Kiev Soldier's Regiment" . The regiment in 1709 fought near Riga and took part in the Battle of Poltava . Until the end of the century, the name of the regiment changed several times. From March 31, 1801, he was called the "Kiev Grenadier Regiment" ^[76] .

On December 18, 1708, at the first division of the Russian kingdom in the province, the Kiev province was formed with the provincial city of Kiev ^[77] and included 55 cities ^[78] . The governor appointed Prince Golitsyn Dmitry Mikhailovich (1708-1718).

October 22, 1721 in St. Petersburg in Trinity Cathedral to Tsar Peter I was brought up the title "emperor" - the Russian kingdom became known as the Russian Empire , of which Kiev Province ^{[79] [80]} became a part.

By decree of November 7, 1775, the provincial government was established in the Kiev province ^[81] .

On September 16, 1781, after the abolition of the Hetmanate and its hundred-regimental structure , the Kiev governorship was formed. The governorship included the territories of the Kiev , Pereyaslav , Lubensky and Mirgorod regiments ^[82] .

By decrees of November 30, December 12 and 31, 1796, from part of the Bratslavsky , Kiev and Volyn provinces districts a new Kiev province was established, and part of the territory located on the left bank of the Dnieper was ceded to the Little Russian province ^[83] .

On November 4 (16), 1805, the Kiev Grenadier Regiment distinguished itself in a battle under the Austrian village of Schöngraben . On June 13, 1806, it was the first in the Russian army that was awarded the banner of St. George .

In 1811, one of the largest fires in the history of Kiev took place. Due to the confluence of many circumstances (according to some evidence, arson took place) a whole district of the city, Podol, burned down. The fire in three days (July 9-11) destroyed over 2 thousand houses, 12 churches, 3 monasteries. Podol was rebuilt by the design of architects Andrei Melensky and William Geste ^{[84] [85]} .

Even after Kiev and its environs ceased to be part of the Commonwealth, the Poles made up a large proportion of the city’s population. In 1812 in Kiev, there were more than 4,300 Polish gentry ^[86] . For comparison, there were about 1,000 Russian nobles in the city. Usually, the nobles spent the winter in Kiev, where they enjoyed themselves for festivities and trips to the fair ^[87] . Until the middle of the 18th century, Kiev ( Polish Kijów ) was greatly influenced by Polish culture ^[86] . Although the Poles made up no more than ten percent of the population of Kiev, they made up 25% of the voters, since at that time there was a property requirement for voters. In the 1830s in Kiev there were quite a few schools with the Polish language of instruction, and before the admission of Poles to the University of St. Vladimir was not limited in 1860, they constituted the majority of students in this institution. The abolition of the autonomy of the city of Kiev by the Russian government and its transfer under the authority of bureaucrats , which was dictated by a directive from St. Petersburg, were largely motivated by the fear of the Polish uprising in the city ^[87] . Warsaw factories and small Polish shops had their branches in Kiev. The Russified Pole Iosif Zavadsky , the founder of the stock exchange in Kiev, was the mayor of 1860–1863. Kiev Poles tended to be friendly towards the Ukrainian national movement in the city, and some even took part in it ^[88] . Many poor Polish nobles were Ukrainianized in language and culture, and these Ukrainians of Polish origin became an important element of the growing Ukrainian national movement. Kiev served as a kind of destination where such activists came along with the pro-Ukrainian descendants of Cossack officers from the left bank. Many of them wanted to leave the city and move to the countryside to try to spread Ukrainian ideas among the peasants ^[86] .

From 12 (24) June 1812 to 1814, the "Kiev Grenadier Regiment" of the 2nd Grenadier Division of the 8th Infantry Corps participated in the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army of 1813-1814 ^[89] .

In 1834, in the framework of the struggle against Polish domination in the region in the field of education, on the initiative of Nicholas I , the Imperial University of St. Vladimir , now known as the Taras Shevchenko Kyiv National University ^[90] . It was the second university in the territory of the Ukraine after the Imperial University of Kharkov . In 1853, at the initiative of the emperor, who called Kiev "Jerusalem of the Russian land" ^[91] and much concerned with its development, the Nikolaev Chain Bridge was opened.

The rapid growth of the city in the first half of the XIX century caused the need for a plan that could regulate and streamline the building. Despite the fact that one of the first general plans was drawn up as early as 1750, it basically fixed the existing situation. In fact, the first general plan, in the modern sense of the word, was drawn up by the architect Beretti and the engineer Shmigelsky (approved in 1837). According to this plan, intensive construction was carried out along the Lybed River, on Pechersk, Podol, Vladimirskaya Street, Bibikovsky (now T. Shevchenko) boulevard, Khreshchatyk Street ^[92] were laid.

In August 1862, the Kiev Military District of the Imperial Russian Army of the Russian Empire was created instead of the 1st Army ^[93] .

On October 1, 1865, Emperor Alexander II opened the Kiev infantry cadet school . Since 1897 it was called "Kiev Military School." From September 26, 1914 - "First Kiev Military School". From October 10, 1915 - "Kiev Infantry Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich Military School." A scarlet monogram of Konstantin Konstantinovich appeared on the shoulder straps in the form of the letter “K”. In November 1917, the surviving instructor officers and junkers left for the Don Army Field in the Russian Volunteer Army ^[94] .

To strengthen Kiev militarily in the XIX century, the Kiev fortress was opened. It was built in 1679, when the Cossack troops under the leadership of Hetman Samoilovich united the old Kiev and Caves fortifications, forming one large fortress. The next period of development of the defensive structures of Kiev is determined by the construction of the Pechersk Citadel under the leadership of Hetman Ivan Mazepa by order of Peter I. The construction took place according to the plan of the French engineer Voban . On the eve of the Patriotic War of 1812 According to the project of a military engineer Opperman, an earthen Zvirynetsky fortification is being built, connected with the Pechersk citadel. Large-scale reconstruction carried out during the reign of Tsar Nicholas I, who approved the plan for the expansion of the fortress. By the beginning of the 60s of the 19th century, it consisted of the following parts: the core - the citadel, two independent fortifications (Vasilkovskoe and Gospitalnoe), supplemented by defensive barracks and towers ^[95] .

During the Russian industrial revolution at the end of the 19th century, Kiev became an important center of commerce and transport for the Russian Empire; this economic and geographical zone specialized in sugar and grain exports by rail and along the Dnieper River. In 1900, the city became an influential industrial center with a population of 250,000 people ^[86] . Architectural monuments of that period include the railway infrastructure, the basis of numerous educational and cultural sites, as well as architectural monuments built mainly with the money of merchants, for example, the Brodsky synagogue ^{[96] [97]} .

At that time, a large Jewish community arose in Kiev, which developed its own ethnic culture and interests. This was due to the ban on Jewish settlements in Russia itself (Moscow and St. Petersburg), as well as in the Far East . Expelled from Kiev in 1654, the Jews probably could not settle in the city again until the early 1790s. On December 2, 1827, Nicholas I issued a decree prohibiting Jews from permanently living in Kiev. Kiev Jews were subject to eviction, and only a few of their categories could come for a limited time, and two special farmsteads were appointed for their stay ^[98] . In 1881 and 1905, the famous pogroms in the city led to the death of about 100 Jews ^[99] . An example of anti-Semitic policies is also the Beilis Case , the trial of Mendel Beilis in the murder of a religious school student. The process was accompanied by large-scale public protests. The accused was acquitted. ^[100]

In the XIX century , the architectural development of the city continues. In 1882, St. Vladimir's Cathedral , built in the Neo-Byzantine style, was opened, in the painting of which Viktor Vasnetsov , Mikhail Nesterov and others subsequently participated. In 1888, a monument to Bogdan Khmelnitsky was unveiled in Kiev by the project of the famous sculptor Mikhail Mikeshin . The opening of the monument, located in front of the Sofia Cathedral, was timed to the 900th anniversary of the baptism of Russia . In 1902, according to the plan of the architect Vladislav Gorodetsky , a House with chimeras was built in Kiev - the most prominent building of the early decorative modern in Kiev. The name is derived from concrete sculpture decorations ^{[101] of} mythological and hunting themes.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the housing issue in Kiev became acute. On March 21, 1909, the charter of the First Kiev Society of Apartment Owners was approved by the provincial government. This event served to start building houses on a cooperative basis, which was a convenient and easy solution to the housing problem for the “middle class” ^[102] .

The development of aviation (both military and amateur) was another noticeable manifestation of progress at the beginning of the 20th century. Such outstanding aviation figures as Peter Nesterov (pioneer in the field of aerobatics ^[103] ) and Igor Sikorsky (creator of the world's first production helicopter R-4 , 1942 ^[104] ) worked in Kiev. Some new technologies in the Russian Empire were first introduced here. In 1892, the first electric tram line in the Russian Empire was launched in Kiev ^[105] . The sports field - the first stationary stadium in the Russian Empire was built in 1912 ^[106] . In the same year, the Ginzburg Skyscraper was built - “the first skyscraper of Ukraine” ^{[107] [108]} , at the time of construction it was the tallest building in the Russian Empire.

In 1911, during a visit to the Kiev Opera , anarchist Dmitry Bogrov was mortally wounded by Russian Prime Minister Peter Stolypin . Buried on the territory of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, Stolypin was subsequently unveiled a monument in front of the City Duma building ^[109] .

On July 19, 1914, during the First World War, the administration of the Kiev Military District allocated personnel, equipment and property to form the field administration of the South-Western Front of the Imperial Russian Army . The commander of the troops of the front was appointed Artillery General N. I. Ivanov ^[110] .

19 июля 1914 года из личного состава штаба округа и войск Киевского военного округа сформирована 3-я армия Юго-Западного фронта . Командующий войсками 3-й армии назначен генерал от инфантерии Н. В. Рузский ^[111] . Управление округа продолжало свою работу в составе фронта по подготовке войск для Действующей армии.

После июля ст. Art. 1914 года училище было сформировано в Киеве как «2-е Киевское военное училище». С 15 октября 1914 года называется «Николаевское военное училище». Юнкера этого училища носили белые погоны с алой выпушкой и алым трафаретным вензелем императора Николая II «Н II» и с золотым накладным вензелем в роте Его Величества. Расформировано в ноябре 1917 года. С мая 1916 года в городе находилось «Николаевское артиллерийское училище». Юнкера носили алые погоны, без выпушки, с жёлтым вензелем императора Николая II «Н II» и золотым вензелем в батарее Его Величества. Расформировано в середине 1918 года ^[112] .

Сложное взаимодействие разнонаправленных политических интересов, переход в политическую стадию национально-освободительного движения, активизация леворадикальных политических течений обусловили напряжённые революционные потрясения 1917—1921 годов. В ходе социальной революции, начавшейся в феврале 1917 года в Петрограде (ныне Санкт-Петербург) и быстро охватившей все промышленные центры и сельскую периферию европейской части Российской империи, Киев стал эпицентром событий первого года украинской революции 1917—1921 годов.

После отречения от власти императора России Николая II в результате Февральской революции в России 3 марта 1917 года власть в Республике России перешла к Временному правительству России . Управление Юго-Западного фронта и соответственно Киевского военного округа, находившееся в городе, перешло в подчинение этому правительству. Командующим войсками округа назначен генерал-лейтенант Н. А. Ходорович (… — октябрь ст. ст. 1917).

Созданная в городе в феврале 1917 года Украинская Центральная Рада (украинский орган местного самоуправления во главе с историком Михаилом Грушевским ^[113] ) созвала первое в XX веке украинское национальное правительство — Генеральный секретариат Украинской Центральной Рады, провозгласила в ноябре 1917 года Украинскую Народную Республику ^[114] , а в январе 1918 года — независимую, суверенную Украину. В этот короткий период независимости наблюдался быстрый рост культурного и политического статуса Киева. Было создано большое количество профессиональных украиноязычных театров и библиотек. Однако УЦР не имела в Киеве прочной социальной опоры.

1 сентября 1917 года губернский город Киев Киевской губернии вошёл в состав Российской Республики .

После Октябрьской революции в России 25—26 октября ст. Art. (7—8 ноября) власть перешла к Временное рабоче-крестьянское правительство сформированному на съезде делегатами от Российской социал-демократической рабочей партии (большевиков) , Партия левых социалистов-революционеров , Российской социал-демократической рабочей партии (меньшевиков) и Партии анархистов . Управление Юго-Западного фронта и соответственно Киевского военного округа, находившееся в городе, перешло в подчинение этому правительству. 20 октября командующим войсками округа назначен генерал-лейтенант М. Ф. Квецинский (20 октября — ноябрь ст. ст. 1917).

7 (20) ноября 1917 года провозглашена Украинская Народная Республика с правами широкой автономии при сохранении федеративной связи с Россией . В ходе наступления большевиков на Киев они опирались на поддержку значительной части киевских рабочих, организовавших восстание против Центральной рады, подавленное войсками Петлюры (4 февраля 1918), но облегчившее последующее взятие Киева большевистской 1-й армией Муравьёва (8 февраля 1918). Большинство военных формирований, находившихся в Киеве, сохраняли нейтралитет, УЦР бросала в бой необученные отряды из киевских гимназистов и студентов (так называемый бой под Крутами ) ^[115] .

Изгнанная из Киева УЦР попросила помощи у стран Четверного союза , оккупировавших Украину в результате Брест-Литовского договора , и 1 марта 1918 года в Киев вошли немецкие и австро-венгерские войска, сопровождавшиеся петлюровцами ^[116] . Однако левый и националистический характер Центральной рады не устраивал немцев, и 28 апреля 1918 она была разогнана немецким патрулём. 29 апреля на Всеукраинском съезде хлеборобов в Киевском цирке был провозглашён гетманат и гетманом был выбран генерал П. Скоропадский , военные формирования УНР в Киеве разоружены.

Киев стал столицей Украинской державы , возглавляемой гетманом П. Скоропадским. Среди всех режимов, сменявших друг друга в Киеве, кроме деникинцев, этот был наиболее консервативным. При нём в Киеве была создана Академия наук ^[117] .

29 апреля — 14 декабря 1918 года в городе находилось управление корпуса — военного округа 4-го Киевского корпуса Украинской державы ^[118] . С 3 июня в городе находилась элитная гетманская Отдельная Сердюкская дивизия Украинской державы .

6 июня 1918 года Киев пережил крупную катастрофу — пожар артиллерийских складов на Зверинце , который не удалось потушить ^[119] .

The collapse of the German Empire predetermined the fate of the Ukrainian state. In November, the division’s forces, together with the Russian officers from the Special Corps and the Combined Corps of the National Guard , defended Kiev in November-December against the rebellious forces of the Ukrainian state and the insurgent population against the hetman P. P. Skoropadsky, but were defeated.

In mid-December 1918, the Germans left Kiev, the hetman was overthrown and fled, and on December 14, the troops of Petlura entered Kiev, restoring the UPR. When, on January 22, 1919, the Directorate of the UNR proclaimed the Act of Unification with ZUNR , Kiev became the capital of Ukraine’s cathedral, but after two weeks, the Directory left it under the pressure of the advancing Soviet forces that entered the city on the night of February 5th, 1919.

On April 10, 1919, the Red Forces were driven out of a part of Kiev (Podil, Svyatoshino, Kurenyovka) for one day by connecting ataman Struk operating in the Chernobyl district ^[120] .

On August 31, 1919, the Soviets ceded the power of Denikin's Volunteer Army (see the Taking of Kiev by the Volunteer Army ). Together with the troops of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia under the command of N. E. Bredov, the units of the Galician army and the army of the UPR were united in Kiev under the command of Petliura. However, after the incident in the center of Kiev, when one of the UNR soldiers tore off the Russian flag, the Ukrainian units were immediately disarmed by Denikin and expelled from the city; in Ukrainian historiography, this event is called the Kiev disaster ^[121] .

As a result of the Red Army raid on October 14, 1919, the whites were briefly knocked out of the city in the eastern suburb of Darnitsa , but the next day they counterattacked and by October 18 threw the Reds behind Irpen . After the new occupation of Kiev, Denikin and local residents staged a pogrom on Jews suspected of supporting the Bolsheviks ^[122] .

The Red Army returned to Kiev on December 16, 1919, forcing the freezing Dnieper and knocking out Denikin ^[123] .

On May 7, 1920, during the Polish-Soviet war, ^[124] Kiev was occupied by Polish troops with the help of the Allied army of the UNR. After the city was abandoned by Polish and Petlura troops (during the Kiev operation of the Red Army ), Soviet power was finally established (June 12, 1920) ^[14] .

Thus, from the beginning of 1917 (the February Revolution ) to the middle of 1920 (the departure of the Poles), power in Kiev was changed 15 times ^[125] .

In October 1921, the All-Ukrainian Council of Clergy and Laity was convened in Kiev by supporters of the ideas of the autocephalous church , in which none of the hierarchs of the Orthodox Russian Church took part. At the cathedral, it was decided on their own, without the participation of the bishops , to perform a consecration , which was soon fulfilled. Supported by the GPU, the Renovation Movement in the Russian Church at the Council in 1923 recognized the autocephaly of the Church in the Ukrainian SSR. However, in 1930, due to new political realities, the UAOC made a decision on self-dissolution. The clergy of the UAOC was almost completely eliminated ^[126] .

From May 23 to May 27, 1922, as part of the South-Western Military District , from May 27 to June 1922, the administration of the 6th Rifle Corps was formed in the city of the Ukrainian Military District ^[127] .

In May 1922, the formation of the management of the 14th rifle corps of the Ukrainian Military District of the Armed Forces of Ukraine and the Crimea began in the Ukrainian SSR . Management of the case was until the summer of 1934. The corps included the 45th Volyn Infantry Division , which was also located in the city.

In 1922, the creative association Berezil was founded in Kiev on the basis of one of the groups of the team of the Young Theater. The first performance "October" (the text of the creative production team) was held on November 7, 1922. He worked as a state theater from 1922 to 1926 in Kiev, and from 1926 - in Kharkov (then the capital of Soviet Ukraine). The period of life and the formation of the theater in Kiev consider it a “political” period, and the Kharkov period - a philosophical period ^{[128] [129]} .

October 12, 1923 - Decree of the USSR People's Commissars of the city limits included villages from Brovary district - Resurrection settlement , villages Old and New Darnitsa , artillery range, suburb pastry cook and Cave , Nicholas suburb , the land of the village Osokorki , Predmostnaya suburb , village Poznyaki , forestry Nikolskoye, lands of Florovsky monastery ; by Budaevskogo district - Alexander suburb , towns Old and New Chokolivka , Airfield , village Belichi , hay village Belogorodka, Ekaterinovka village, hamlet Liubka village Romanovka and scoops , Sovski forest dacha, and Kiev Svyatoshinsky forest, farm Dekhtyar and Wisniewski, land Grechesko- Sinai Monastery; from Gostomelsky district — the farm Berkovets , the village of Gorenka , the village of Konstantinovka, the village of Mostyshche , the forestry of Mezhigorskoye, the farm of Nikolsky, the brick factory Papirnya; from Khotovsky district - lands of the village of Vita Pochtovaya , Goloseevskaya desert , Galerny Island , the Red Tavern farm, Fort Lysogorsky , the village of Mousetrap .

May 17, 1924 was founded the first kindergarten of Kiev "Orlyonok". In the 1930s, a specialized building was built for it, which subsequently received many awards for its style ^[130] .

In 1928, to protect the city from Poland, construction began on the Kievskiy fortified area to cover the city. The front edge of KiUR was 25–30 km from the city (along the Irpen River), and then the flanks arched against the Dnieper ^[131] .

In 1930, the film “ Earth ” of the Ukrainian director Alexander Dovzhenko was shot in Kiev ^[132] . According to the magazine “ Sight & Sound ”, the film is one of the best examples of the Soviet silent film ^[133] . At the World Exhibition in Brussels, the movie "The Earth" took the tenth place among the 12 best films in the history of cinema ^[134] .

In social terms, this period was accompanied by repression against many representatives of the creative professions (for these events there is the term " shot revival "). In addition, the process of destruction of churches and monuments, which began in the 1920s, reached its apogee. Examples of this are the demolition of the Mikhailovsky Golden-Domed Monastery ^[135] and the confiscation of property from Hagia Sophia ^[136] .

The urban population continued to grow mainly due to migrants. The migration changed the ethnic demography of the city from Russian-Ukrainian to predominantly Ukrainian-Russian, although Russian remained dominant. Kievans also suffered from the volatile Soviet policies of the time. Calling on Ukrainians to make a career and develop their culture ( Ukrainization ) ^[137] , the Soviet authorities soon launched a struggle against "nationalism." Political processes were organized in the city in order to clean it of “Western spies”, “Ukrainian nationalists”, opponents of Joseph Stalin and the CPSU (b) . At the end of this period, secret mass executions began in Kiev. Kiev intellectuals, clergy ^[138] and party activists were arrested, shot and buried in mass graves. The main sites of action were Babi Yar and the Bykivnia forests ^[139] . At the same time, the city's economy continued to grow thanks to the course towards industrialization, proclaimed as early as 1927 ^[140] . In 1932 the building of the central railway station was built in the style of Ukrainian Baroque with elements of constructivism ^[141] .

In 1932–33, the population of the city, as in most other cities of the USSR (Kazakhstan, the Volga region, the North Caucasus and Ukraine), suffered from hunger (the Holodomor ). In Kiev, bread and other foodstuffs were distributed to people on food ration cards in accordance with the daily norm, but bread was in short supply, and citizens stood in the queue all night to get it. The victims of the Holodomor in Kiev can be divided into three parts: victims from among the actual residents of Kiev; victims of the suburbs of Kiev; peasants who traveled to the city in different ways hoping to survive and died already in Kiev. If we proceed from the fact that as of autumn 1931, the population of Kiev was 586 thousand people, and at the beginning of 1934 it was 510 thousand, then taking into account the birth rate during this period, Kiev lost more than 100 thousand people. Historian Sergei Belokon cites the number of 54,150 victims for 1933 ^{[142] [143] [144]} .

From February 4, 1932 to March 30, 1938, the 45th mechanized corps was located in the city, a unique military unit (one of the three in the Red Army) that had no analogues in the world. The corps is armed with 500 tanks and 200 cars.

From May 10, 1932 to March 1934, the 2nd Independent Mechanized Brigade , armed with Russian Soviet light tanks T-26 and high-speed light tanks BT , was in Kiev in UkrVO. The commander of the brigade appointed V. I. Mernov. The brigade was formed among the first tank units of the Red Army of the new generation. From May 1, 1934 to November 1937, the 8th Separate Mechanized Brigade was stationed. The brigade commander D. A. Schmidt .

In 1934, the capital of the Ukrainian SSR was moved from Kharkov to Kiev. This suggested a plan of Stalin. The expansion of the city due to new buildings was suspended. The influence on the population was exerted by the Soviet social policy, which was achieved through repression, coercion and rapid movement to totalitarianism, in which dissent and non-communist organizations are not allowed ^[145] . Tens of thousands of people were sent to GULAG camps ^[146] .

In the summer of 1934, the administration of the 14th rifle corps of the Ukrainian Military District was transferred from Kiev to Kharkov .

The increased danger of the international situation in Europe forced the Soviet leadership to strengthen the country's defense, to improve the structure of the armed forces. On May 17, 1935, the Ukrainian Military District was divided into the Kiev Military District and the Kharkov Military District . In the city left control QUO.

In January 1936, the 4th Separate Heavy Tank Brigade , armed with Soviet medium T-28 tanks, later renamed the 10th Heavy Tank Brigade , was transferred to the city. Since November 1937, the 3rd Independent Mechanized Brigade in the city.

In 1937, the first Art School in the Ukrainian Republic (named after T. Shevchenko) was built in Kiev. Now the building houses the Museum of History .

From 1928 to 1942, there were three five-year plans (the latter was thwarted by the war) ^[147] , during which about 2 thousand industrial facilities were built on the territory of Ukraine, specifically in Kiev such giants as “ Krivorozhstal ” or HTZ were not built, but this did not prevent industrialization in the city: to make roads, to electrify distant areas and so on. In 1935, the first trolleybus was launched in Kiev, following the route Lev Tolstoy Square - Zagorodnaya Street ^[148] .

The war turned into a series of tragic events for Kiev, significant human losses and material damage. Already at dawn on June 22, 1941, German aircraft bombed Kiev, and on July 11, German troops approached Kiev. Kiev defensive operation lasted 78 days ^[149] . Forcing the Dnieper in the area of Kremenchug , Nazi troops surrounded Kiev, and on September 19 the city was taken. At the same time, more than 665 thousand fighters and commanders were taken prisoner, 884 units of armored vehicles, 3,718 guns and much more were captured.

On June 22, 1941, the KOVO Directorate singled out the field administration of the South-Western Front . The KBO Office continued to work under the direction of Lieutenant-General V. F. Yakovlev. Organized conscription and the fleet. Kiev radio station worked in the city, courses for the preparation of political personnel were opened. Together with the Kiev city and regional party committees, propagandist groups were created that went to the front, explained to the Red Army the goals and nature of the war of the Soviet people, exposed the plans of the German leadership on the destruction of the Soviet Union ^[150] . Since the beginning of the war, the party organizations of the city have sent over 30,000 communists to the troops ^[151] .

On June 29, the Central Committee of the CP (B) U , which was attended by the command of the South-Western Front, considered the implementation of the directive of the Commander of the South-Western Front on the formation of parts of the Kiev fortified area, the redevelopment of district structures and the construction of new defensive lines. On June 30, 50,000 of Kiev residents went to the construction of fortifications and lines , then 160,000 people each went out daily. German pilots bombed and fired builders with machine guns, but they continued to work - the city had to be defended. The formation of the NKVD extermination battalions to combat saboteurs and spies began ^[151] .

On July 6, a city defense headquarters was created. It consisted of: Secretary of the CP (b) Regional Committee MP M. Mishin, Chairman of the Regional Executive Committee T. Ya. Kostyuk, Secretary of the Party Committee of the Party T. V. Shamrilo and K. F. Moskalets, Chairman of the City Executive Committee I. S. Shevtsov, from South-Western Front, Colonel A. F. Chernyshev (Chief of Staff) and Major MD D. Chukarev (Head of Engineering Services). The headquarters developed a plan to fight the enemy in case of a breakthrough of KiUR. The city was divided into three sectors. Each of them had its own defense headquarters ^{[152] [153] [154]} .

On July 8, the city had 13 fighter battalions, 19 detachments and the Komsomol regiment of the people's militia - a total of 35,000 people ^{[151] [155]} .

Since July 11, battles took place in the nearest approaches to the city. On the German wedge, from the north direction from the line east of Novograd-Volynskiy , the 5th army delivered a counterstrike, from the south direction from the region of Berdichev , the 6th army struck the counterstrike. The troops of the 5th Army cut the Zhytomyr Highway and until July 15, in stubborn battles, they held him, shackling the enemy’s reserves , which were destined for the capture of Kiev ^[156] .

In July-August in the city under the leadership of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) and the CP (b) U to fight in the enemy's rear were trained and transferred to the occupied western regions of Ukraine Rivne , Tarnopolskaya and other 37 partisan groups , near to the front of Vinnitsa , Kamyanets-Podilsky areas and others were also sent to partisan groups. In the city 13 partisan formations were formed with a total of 4076 people ^[157] .

4-6 August in the southern sector, the battles reached the highest intensity. The Nazis wedged in the first line of defense in the areas of Vita-Pochtovaya, Mrygi, but were knocked out by a counterattack by the troops of the 147th rifle division ^[158] .

On August 7, 1941, it became known to the defenders of Kiev that the commander-in-chief of German troops, Adolf Hitler, ordered his generals to capture the city by all means and hold a military parade on the main street of Kreshchatik on August 8. Commanders, political workers, party activists went to the units to explain the current situation. At short meetings and meetings, the Red Army men swore to repel the new offensive of the enemy. On August 8, German troops managed to advance into the depths of the Kievsky fortified area, reach the northeastern outskirts of Zhulyan and the Goloseyevsky forest, the Mousetrap, Pirogovo, but were stopped. The military parade of the German troops did not take place. It was not his and August 9, and later ^[159] . On August 9, the administration of the QUA leaves the city and moves to Konotop ^[150] . On August 10, 1941, the 37th Army was created on the basis of the troops of the Kiev fortified area.

On 11 August, the 37th Army, with four rifle divisions and the 3rd Airborne Corps, launches a counter-attack, which began with volley of Katyusha mortars and artillery of various calibers. Opponent rolled south. On the 11th, Teremki and the Mousetrap were released, on the 12th – 14th, Tarasovka, Shepherds, Novosilka, Pirogovo. The German 44 , 71 , 299th infantry divisions were defeated ^[158] .

The counterattack of the 37th Army in the southern sector of defense was successful; by August 16, the enemy’s offensive outburst was exhausted. The fighting near Kiev assumed a positional character ^[158] .

The capital of Soviet Ukraine continued to live a combat life. The remaining enterprises in the city, utilities, railway and urban transport, cinemas, the Ukrainian Drama Theater, the Theater of Miniatures, a circus, a library, and from September 1 - schools ^[158] worked.

In mid-September, the enemy stepped up, the battles again became fierce. September 21, Soviet troops left the last district of the city - Darnitsa. The defenders of Kiev for the first time in this war for a long time delayed the advance of the enemy ^[158] . The sad fate awaited the Soviet prisoners of war who were encircled east of the city was the agony of their stay in the Darnytsa concentration camp .

On September 24, a number of explosions were carried out in the city, due to which a big fire started on Khreshchatyk and in adjacent quarters, according to one version, the units of the NKVD ^[160] did it, on the other - German occupiers ^[161] . On September 29 and 30, the Nazis and the Ukrainian collaborationists of Jews murdered in Babiy Yar , during these 2 days more than 33 thousand people died. In total, according to Ukrainian scientists, the number of Jews shot at Babi Yar was 150 thousand (residents of Kiev, as well as other cities of Ukraine ^{[162] [163]} , and this number does not include young children under 3 years old, who were also killed, but did not count ^[164] ). The most famous collaborators of the Reichskommissariat of Ukraine were the burgomasters of Kiev, Alexander Ogloblin and Vladimir Bagaziy ^[165] . It is also worth noting that a number of nationalist leaders saw in the occupation the opportunity to begin a cultural revival, freeing themselves from Bolshevism ^[166] .

On November 3, the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was undermined. The Darnitsky and Syretsky concentration camps were established on the territory of the city, where 68 and 25 thousand prisoners, respectively, died ^[167] . In the summer of 1942, a football match was held in occupied Kiev between the Start team and the German combat squad team. Subsequently, many Kiev football players were arrested, some of them died in a concentration camp in 1943. This event was called the “ Death Match ” ^[168] . Over 100 thousand young people were sent to forced labor in Germany from Kiev. By the end of 1943, the population of the city was reduced to 180 thousand ^[169] . The occupation was accompanied by famine among the locals, caused, among other things, by the orders of the Nazis ^[170] .

When the German occupation in the city acted Kiev city government ^{[171] [172] [173]} .

On November 1, 1943, an offensive began on the Bukrin bridgehead in order to divert German troops from Kiev, the 40th Army and the 27th Army of the 1st Ukrainian Front began ^[174] .

The partisan detachments assisted the Red Army in the liberation of settlements in the region and the city from the Nazi invaders. Joint actions captured 12 crossings across the Desna and Dnieper rivers. Particularly distinguished were the partisans of the 1st and 2nd regiments of the “For the Homeland!” Formation under the command of I. M. Bovkun. The regiment commanders N. D. Simonenko and A. I. Shevyrev were awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union ^[157] .

On November 3, after a powerful artillery preparation, the 38th Army and the 60th Army of the 1st Ukrainian Front launched an offensive with the aim of liberating Kiev. This began the Kiev offensive operation . On November 4, the 3rd Guards Tank Army and the 1st Czechoslovak Brigade were introduced with the aim of developing success ^[174] .

In early November 1943, on the eve of the retreat, the German invaders began to burn Kiev. On the night of November 6, 1943, the advanced units of the 1st Ukrainian Front of the Red Army, overcoming the insignificant resistance of the remnants of the German army, entered the almost empty burning city. At the same time, there is a version that the desire of Stalin to catch up to the Soviet holiday date on November 7 ^{[175] [176]} led to significant military losses: the liberation of Kiev cost the lives of 6,491 fighters and the commander of the Red Army ^[177] .

Commanders and Red Army soldiers showed massive heroism in the battles for Kiev. 65 compounds and parts received the honorary name "Kiev". About 700 soldiers, sergeants, officers and generals were awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union , 17,500 soldiers were awarded orders and medals ^{[174] [178]} .

Later, in the course of the Kiev defensive operation , an attempt was repeated by the German fascist troops to seize Kiev again ( on December 23, 1943, the Wehrmacht, having stopped the attempts of an offensive, switched to defense) ^[179] .

In total, during the hostilities in Kiev, 940 buildings of state and public institutions of over 1 million m² were destroyed, 1,742 utility houses with a living area of ​​over 1 million m², 3,600 private houses of up to half a million square meters; all bridges across the Dnieper were destroyed, the water supply system, sewage system , and transport facilities were disabled ^[177] .

On June 21, 1961, to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the heroic defense, Kiev was awarded the Order of Lenin .

On June 21, 1961, the medal “For the Defense of Kiev” was instituted, which, by January 1, 1979, awarded more than 100,000 people ^[158] . In the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of June 21, 1961 "On the establishment of the medal" For the Defense of Kiev ", the city of Kiev is called the hero city ^[180] .

On May 8, 1965, in commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the victory of the Soviet people in the Great Patriotic War, the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR approved the Statute on the honorary title “Hero City” ^[181] . On the same day, the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR “On awarding the Golden Star Medal to the Hero City of Kiev for heroism during defense was issued. Thereby, the honorary title “Hero City” was legally assigned to Kiev (in 1980 it was transformed into the highest degree of distinction). In accordance with the Decree, the representatives of the city workers were awarded the Gold Star Medal and Diploma of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR ^[180] .

The first post-war years were marked by intensive restoration of the destroyed city. In January 1944, leading state and party institutions returned to the capital of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1948, the construction of the Dashava -Kiev gas pipeline was completed, in 1949 the Darnitskiy railway bridge and the Patona bridge ^{[182] were built} , and the construction of the metro began ^[183] . The industrial and scientific potential of the city developed; it was in Kiev in 1950 that the first computer in the USSR and continental Europe, MESM, was created ^[184] , and in 1951 the first television center in Ukraine started broadcasting ^[185] .

After the war, it was decided to rebuild Khreshchatyk, retaining the configuration of the streets, but the buildings were built completely new, in the style of " Stalin's Empire ". The street is built up as a single architectural ensemble. The width of Khreshchatyk increased to 75 meters. The street profile became asymmetrical: the roadway was 24 meters, two sidewalks of 14 meters each, separated from the roadway by a row of trees, and a chestnut boulevard on the right side, which separated the residential area from the roadway ^[186] .

Kiev remained the center of development of Ukrainian national culture. However, already in 1946, the Soviet authorities began a wave of ideological purges that found a response in the Resolutions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine to the directive On Distortion and Errors in Covering the History of Ukrainian Literature ^[187] , “On the Pepper Satire and Humor Magazine” ^[188] , On the repertoire of dramatic theaters and measures for its improvement ” ^[189] and others.

Смерть Сталина в 1953 году и приход к власти Хрущёва ознаменовались началом периода « оттепели» ^[190] . На волне ракетно-ядерной гонки и химизации народного хозяйства стремительно развивались научно-исследовательские институты АН УССР. В 1957 году основан Вычислительный центр АН УССР , в 1960 году в Институте физики запущен атомный реактор . В том же году пущен в эксплуатацию первый участок метрополитена ^[183] , а население города превысило один миллион жителей.

Ослабление идеологического давления способствовало усиленной творческой активности ^[191] . В Киеве дебютировали писатели Иван Драч , Виталий Коротич , Лина Костенко ; композиторы Валентин Сильвестров и Леонид Грабовский ; на киностудии им. А. Довженко были созданы такие киноленты, как « За двумя зайцами » (Виктор Иванов, 1961), « Тени забытых предков » ( Сергей Параджанов , 1964) ^[192] . Однако начался процесс русификации: в 1959 году Верховный совет УССР утвердил закон, который давал право родителям выбирать для своих детей язык обучения ^[193] .

В то же время очередная атеистическая кампания привела к закрытию ряда храмов, которые возобновили свою деятельность во время войны, сносу некоторых культовых сооружений, осквернению исторических захоронений (разгромлено Лукьяновское еврейское и караимское кладбище площадью свыше 25 га.). Халатное отношение к технологическим требованиям привело к масштабной Куренёвской трагедии , которая длительное время замалчивалась властью ^{[194] [195] [196]} . При невыясненных до конца обстоятельствах 24 мая 1964 года были уничтожены пожаром уникальные материалы из фондов Государственной публичной библиотеки АН УССР ^[197] .

В 1960-е годы резко ускорились урбанизационные процессы , благодаря чему с 1959 по 1979 год общее количество постоянных жителей Киева возросло с 1,09 до 2,12 млн человек ^[198] . В эти годы были возведены новые жилые массивы на левом берегу Днепра: Русановка, Березняки, Воскресенка, Левобережный, Комсомольский, Лесной, Радужный; позже: Вигуровщина-Троещина , Харьковский , Осокорки и Позняки . Построены многоэтажные гостиницы: «Лыбидь» (17 этажей, 1971 год), «Славутич» (16 этажей, 1972 год), «Киев» (20 этажей, 1973 год), «Русь» (21 этаж, 1979 год), «Турист» (26 этажей, 1980 год) ^[199] .

Разрасталась сеть высших учебных заведений, создавались новые культурные центры (в частности, Театр драмы и комедии , Молодёжный театр ), музеи, среди которых Музей народной архитектуры и быта УССР , Музей истории Киева и Музей истории Великой Отечественной войны с 62-метровой статуей Родины-матери ^[200] .

В эти годы столица Советской Украины была дважды удостоена ордена Ленина . Первым орденом Киев был награждён 22 мая 1954 года за успехи, достигнутые в возрождении республики в послевоенный период ^[201] . Вторым орденом Ленина — в соответствии с Указом от 21 июня 1961 года «за проявленный героизм трудящимися города Киева в борьбе с немецко-фашистскими захватчиками при обороне столицы Советской Украины в июле — сентябре 1941 года» ^[202] . Другим Указом от 21 июня 1961 года была учреждена медаль «За оборону Киева» для награждения участников героической обороны города-героя Киева ^[203] . Эти два Указа явились первыми официальными документами, в которых Киев был упомянут как город-герой.

8 мая 1965 года Указом Президиума Верховного Совета СССР за выдающиеся заслуги перед Родиной, мужество и героизм, проявленные трудящимися города Киева в борьбе с немецко-фашистскими захватчиками, и в ознаменование 20-летия победы советского народа в Великой Отечественной войне 1941—1945 гг. Городу-Герою Киеву была вручена медаль « Золотая Звезда » ^[204] .

However, from the mid-1960s, the ideological dictatorship resumed, and Kiev became one of the centers of the dissident movement ^[205] . In fact, there are two main directions of dissident opposition to the regime. The first of them focused on support from outside the USSR, the second - on the use of protest attitudes among the population inside the country. The activity was based on an appeal to foreign public opinion, the use of the Western press, non-governmental organizations, foundations, relations with political and government officials of the West. The dissidents sent open letters to the central newspapers and the CPSU Central Committee, produced and distributed samizdat , organized demonstrations. The beginning of a broad dissident movement is associated with the process of Daniel and Sinyavsky (1965), as well as with the introduction of the Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia (1968) ^[206] . In 1976, the Ukrainian Helsinki Group ^[207] was founded in Kiev, which advocated the protection of human rights according to the Helsinki Agreement , signed by the USSR a year earlier.

An intensive publication of textbooks was observed in the field of education, a ten-year education system was returned. However, the demographic crisis came, the growth of the urban population continued only through migration and urbanization processes ^[198] .

In 1973, the construction of the Kiev TV Tower was completed, which, as of 2013, is the tallest building in Ukraine and the tallest lattice building in the world ^[208] .

The process of stagnation in the economy did not bypass Kiev: the pace of production fell, the competitiveness of goods declined. The urban population did not receive enough food, despite significant investments in agriculture. Personnel stagnation took place, city officials due to elderly age could no longer cope with their duties, which also adversely affected the well-being of the city ^[209] .

Despite the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant on April 26, 1986, celebrations and demonstrations dedicated to May Day were held in Kiev. Information about the incident was concealed so that there was no panic among the population ^[210] . The accident caused a significant deterioration of the ecological situation in Kiev, the health of city residents deteriorated markedly, for example, cases of thyroid cancer were five times more frequent ^[211] . Many foodstuffs subject to radioactive contamination were initially thoroughly checked with radiometers .

In 1987, Oles Shevchenko founded the Ukrainian Culturological Club in Kiev. The club began its activities with public discussions. Later began to resort to public shares. A demonstration was held on the anniversary of the Chernobyl accident, there were also plans to collect signatures to justify political prisoners, but the event was thwarted. The date of completion of the club is considered to be the date of the funeral of V. Stus ^[212] .

In the autumn of 1989, a constituent congress of the “ National Rukh of Ukraine for Perestroika ” was held in Kiev. The first party leader was Ivan Drach . At the beginning, the NRU was a group of people, sometimes with diametrically opposed views, from liberal-minded communists to radical nationalists. Over time, however, the majority of communists and right-wing radicals left the ranks of the movement due to the predominance of participants with national democratic views. The Live Chain from Ivano-Frankivsk to Kiev on January 22, 1990 in honor of the 71st anniversary of the so-called Act of Zluka ^{[213], was} one of the largest actions of the party.

From October 2 to October 17, 1990, the students went on a hunger strike on the square of the October Revolution (now Independence Square ) and mass protests in Kiev, the main role of which was played by students and students of technical schools and vocational schools. The government was forced to meet part of the demands of the protesters, which related to military service, the holding of new elections, the nationalization of property and the resignation of the Head of the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR ^[214] .

On August 24, 1991, in Kiev, the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR approved the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine ^[215] .

In 1991, Kiev became the capital of an independent Ukraine , but positive changes were rather difficult in the city: the nationwide socio-economic crisis was growing, which led to an increase in unemployment and a reduction in production. Back in the 1980s, with the development of commercial relations, new organized gangs, the so-called reket, appeared . After that, skirmishes began to occur in the city due to the distribution of spheres of influence ^[216] . This form of organized crime existed en masse until the mid-1990s.

In 1999, the Mikhailovsky Golden-domed Monastery destroyed by the Bolsheviks was restored. A year later, the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra was restored, and five years later the Church of the Nativity of Christ was restored. Simultaneously with the Assumption Cathedral, the first Kiev mosque of Ar-Rahma was built in the historical center of the city ^[217] .

The metro line to Lukyanovka and Kharkov massif was completed, the Singing Field was opened. South Station ^[141] , built in 2001, became an attraction of the transport infrastructure of the capital. The building is decorated in the Romanesque style near the newly planned square. Its construction helped to unload the building of the Central Station , built back in 1932.

In Kiev, shopping and entertainment centers are actively being built, part of the building of which is located underground. Popular since the 1970s, buildings of glass and concrete are being reconstructed and transformed into modern office centers. Also, the restoration of old houses of the XIX - early XX century in the central part of the city, the building of which is planned to ban. Regarding the development of urban infrastructure, the priority is expansion and renewal of the public transport fleet, replacement and repair of communications, construction of new metro stations and road interchanges, creation of an effective system for cleaning the city from debris. An important aspect is also attracting investment, building in Kiev the headquarters of international companies and new business centers. In addition, it is planned to solve the problem of point building ^[218] .

In 2001, a national census was conducted. According to its results, the population of Kiev amounted to more than 2.6 million people. The percentage of Ukrainians in the city was 82.2% ^[219] .

November 22 - December 26, 2004 - the time of the Orange Revolution on Independence Square against the rigging of the results of presidential elections ^[220] . Thanks to the action , Viktor Yushchenko became the president of Ukraine .

The final of the European Football Championship 2012 , in which Spain defeated Italy ^[221] , was held on July 1, 2012 in Kiev at the NSC Olimpiysky stadium.

On November 21, 2013, in response to the suspension by the Ukrainian government of the process of preparing for the signing of an association agreement between Ukraine and the European Union , a massive, multi-month protest rally began in Kiev, called the Euromaidan ^[222] .