Presidential List of Peru

The list reflects the persons who exercised the highest executive power in the Republic of Peru, beginning with the landing on September 8, 1820 ( 1820-09-08 ) of the army of the liberation expedition to Peru on the coast near the city of Pisco under the command of José Francisco de San Martín i Matorrasa , on August 3, 1821 ( 1821-08-03 ) , who assumed the authority of the Protector of Peru . Also included are persons who formed parallel authorities, in the presence of constitutional or otherwise recognized authorities (for example, waging an armed struggle with them and controlling a significant part of the territory or the capital), as well as persons temporarily exercising the powers of the head of the executive branch (while maintaining permanent powers the main, usually a constitutional person, in connection with his departure from the capital or the presence of other obstacles to the performance of the presidential functions).

In the case when the president received repeated powers consecutively over the initial ones, each term of office is reflected separately (for example, three consecutive terms of office of Alberto Kenyi Fujimori in 1990-2000). Also, to reflect the complexity of the history of the country, the different nature of the powers of the heads of state is reflected (for example, the single term in office of Colonel Oscar Raimundo Benavides Larrei in the years 1914-1915 was divided into periods when he was initially president of the government junta ( Spanish Presidente de la Junta de Gobierno ) and then was elected by Congress as interim president of the republic ( Spanish Presidente provisorio de la República ) for the period until the presidential election.

Before the victory in the elections of 1872 the first civilian in the history of Peru, Manuel Pardo y Lavallier, all the heads of state of Peru were representatives of the Armed Forces, which did not determine the nature of their participation in political life, and therefore they are indicated as independent politicians. In subsequent periods, a person’s military status is reflected if he was in the period of his powers in active military service and was not elected to the presidency as a representative of a political party.

For convenience, the list is divided into periods of the country's history adopted in Peruvian historiography. The descriptions of these periods given in the preambles to each of the sections are intended to clarify the particularities of the country's political life. The numbering used in the first column is conditional and applied exclusively to persons who have received the powers of the president (constitutional, provisional, transitional) in the constitutional order. Also conditional is the use of a color fill in the first column, which serves to simplify the perception of persons belonging to various political forces without the need to refer to a column reflecting party affiliation.

September 8, 1820 ( 1820-09-08 ) , the army of the liberation expedition to Peru under the command of Jose de San Martina, landed on the coast near the city of Pisco . ^[3] After the occupation of Lima, San Martin invited his inhabitants to take an oath of independence. July 15, 1821 ( 1821-07-15 ) , the municipal council of Lima adopted a declaration of independence written by Manuel Perez de Tudela , the public announcement of which took place on July 28, 1821 ( 1821-07-28 ) , in the main city square ^[4] .

On August 3, 1821 ( 1821-08-03 ) , San Martin, by decree, assumed political and military command in the liberated departments, with the title of protector , for the period before the work of the Constitutional Congress convened by him on December 27, 1821 ( 1821-12-27 ) , was convened . September 20, 1822 ( 1822-09-20 ) , before the first meeting of the Congress, San Martin announced the resignation of his powers as protector ^[5] . During San Martin’s trip to Guayaquil to meet with Simon Bolivar he was replaced by his high delegate José Bernardo de Taglie y Portocarrero ^[6] .

On September 22, 1822 ( 1822-09-22 ) , the constitutional congress formed the Supreme Government junta from among its members chaired by Jose de la Mara . On December 17, 1822 ( 1822-12-17 ) , the junta unveiled the “Fundamentals of Constitutional Policy” ( Spanish Bases de la Constitución Política ), which for the first time defined the independent Peruvian nation as the Peruvian Republic ( Spanish República Peruana ) ^[7] .

On February 28, 1823 ( 1823-02-28 ) , the constitutional congress satisfied the demand of the rebelled high-ranking military and elected, instead of the government junta dissolved the day before, the first president of the Peruvian Republic, José de la Riva Aguero . On June 16, 1823 ( 1823-06-16 ) , the president and congress were forced to relocate work to Callao (in the fortress of King Philip ) ^{[8] [9]} . On June 19, 1823 ( 1823-06-19 ) , Lima was occupied by the forces of the royalists , and on June 23, 1823 ( 1823-06-23 ) , the congress dismissed the president and transferred the supreme and military power to Antonio Jose de Sucre , who arrived from Greater Colombia , while also appointing a civilian government manager ^{[10] [11]} . On July 17, 1823 ( 1823-07-17 ) , at the suggestion of de Sucre, the congress transferred control and supreme command to José de Taglie , and on August 16, 1823 ( 1823-08-16 ) he was elected the second president of the republic ^[12] .

On September 1, 1823 ( 1823-09-01 ) , Simon Bolivar arrived in Peru, who recognized the Taglier government and the powers of the constitutional congress, which vested him with extraordinary powers on September 10, 1823 ( 1823-09-10 ) , to achieve full independence of the country, up to to supremacy over the president and congress. Despite the promulgation on November 12, 1823 ( 1823-11-12 ) of Taglier , the political constitution adopted by Congress , most of her articles did not enter into force so as not to impede the activities of Bolivar (its action was restored on June 11, 1827 ( 1827-06-11 ) , ^[13] . On February 17, 1824 ( 1824-02-17 ) , Congress terminated the nominal powers of President Taglier and declared Bolivar the first dictator, and on February 10, 1825 ( 1825-02-10 ) , (after winning the battle of Ayacucho and signing on December 9, 1824 ( 1824) -12-09 ) of the year of Spanish surrender) - Liberator ( Spanish Libertador ) ^{[14] [15]} . In view of Bolivar’s departure to Colombia from September 3, 1826 ( 1826-09-03 ) , his powers were actually performed by the president of the government council Andres de Santa Cruz , which did not prevent Bolivar from exercising political control with his decrees ^[16] . November 30, 1826 ( 1826-11-30 ) , the electoral college adopted the political constitution , who established the post of lifetime president for Bolivar ( Spanish Presidente vitalicio ) ^[13] . However, already on January 27, 1827 ( 1827-01-27 ) , its action was terminated, Bolivar was finally deprived of his authority, and Santa Cruz led the government junta ^[12] .

On June 6, 1827 ( 1827-06-06 ) , the General Constitutional Congress began to work ^[17] , who on June 9, 1827 ( 1827-06-09 ) elected President José de la Mara ^[18] and Vice-President of Manuel Salazar (who headed the executive branch in the absence of la Mara). On April 18, 1828 ( 1828-04-18 ) , the Congress unveiled a new constitution established a parliamentary republic . On June 6, 1829 ( 1829-06-06 ) , La Mar was overthrown by Antonio Gutierrez de la Fuente , who on September 1, 1829 ( 1829-09-01 ) transferred power to interim president Agustin Gamarra ^{[19] [20]} , becoming vice president . In the elections they received constitutional status ^[21] . President Gamarra, participating in hostilities, for a long time transferred executive power to various officials - the vice president, prefect of Lima, and congressional leaders. After the expiration of his term of office on December 20, 1833 ( 1833-12-20 ) , he ceded power to the president of the national convention on 12 September 1833 ( 1833-09-12 ) ^[22] , who elected the next day, interim president Luis de Orbegoso ^{[23] [24]} , who also temporarily transferred power to other officials temporarily, participating in an armed struggle first with Pedro Bermudez (who lost him in the elections and rebelled) ^[25] , then with Filipe Salaverri (who defeated Bermudes, but who occupied Lima and proclaimed himself ruler and supreme legislator of the republic) ^{[26] [27]} . With the help of the troops of Bolivian President Santa Cruz, Orbegoso regained power, but agreed to the creation of the Confederation of Peru and Bolivia , in which he led Northern Peru .

• Persons who formed parallel authorities, in the presence of constitutional or otherwise recognized authorities (for example, waging armed struggle with them and controlling a significant part of the territory or the capital), are shown in khaki in the first column of the table.
• The dates of the beginning and end of the temporary exercise of powers of the head of the executive branch (while maintaining the permanent powers of the principal, usually constitutional person) are shown in italics .

The Confederation of Peru and Bolivia ( Spanish Confederación Perú-Boliviana ) was a short-lived state formation created during the long civil war in Peru (the uprising of 1834 Pedro Bermudes against the interim president Luis de Orbegoso , later the war of 1835-1836 usurped power by Filipe Salaverri with the troops of the President of Bolivia, Andrés de Santa Cruz ^[42] .

The initiator of the creation of the confederation A. de Santa Cruz was elected its supreme protector (defender) at congresses in Sikuani ( State of Southern Peru ), Waura ( State of Northern Peru ) and Tapakari ( Bolivia ), in which he was also elected the supreme protector of each of the states included in the confederation ^[43] .

The creation of the confederation met with resistance both inside Peru and led to wars with neighboring Chile and Argentina . After the defeat of A. de Santa Cruz on January 20, 1839 ( 1839-01-20 ) , at the Battle of Yungai and his flight to Ecuador, the confederation was dissolved, separate governing bodies of the South and North were replaced by the organs of a single Peru.

Southern Peru

State of Southern Peru ( Spanish: Estado Sud-Peruano , or Republic of South Peru , Spanish: República Sud-Peruana ) was created in southern Peru after the intervention in the intra-Peruvian civil conflict of the President of Bolivia, Andres de Santa Cruz . March 17, 1836 ( 1836-03-17 ) , at the Sikuani Assembly held from March 16 to 22 represented by deputies from the departments of Arequipa , Ayacucho , Cuzco and Puno , the creation of the state was proclaimed and its constitution adopted . The fullness of state power was granted to Marshal Santa Cruz, proclaimed the supreme protector (defender) of the state. He was given the authority to include South Peru in a confederation with North Peru and Bolivia.

From March 17, 1836 ( 1836-03-17 ) to March 19, 1836 ( 1836-03-19 ) , the absent Santa Cruz was replaced by Assembly President Nicholas Fernandez Pierola y Flores .

Under the rule of the protector, the organization of public life was entrusted to the later appointed interim president of the state of South Peru ( Spanish Presidente del Estado Sud-Peruano en la Confederación Peruano-Boliviana ).

In fact, it ceased to exist on February 23, 1839 ( 1839-02-23 ) , with the termination of the powers of interim president Juan Pio de Tristan y Moscoso .

Northern Peru

State of Northern Peru ( Spanish Estado Nor-Peruano , or Republic of Northern Peru , Spanish República del Norte del Perú ) was created in the northern part of Peru after the intervention in the intra-Peruvian civil conflict of the President of Bolivia, Andres de Santa Cruz . On August 6, 1836 ( 1836-08-06 ) , at the Assembly of Waura from August 3 to 11, represented by deputies from the departments Amasonas , Junin , La Libertad and Lima , the creation of the state was proclaimed and its constitution adopted . The fullness of state power was granted to Marshal Santa Cruz, proclaimed the supreme protector (defender) of the state. He was given the authority to include South Peru in a confederation with North Peru and Bolivia.

From August 11, 1836 ( 1836-08-11 ) to August 16, 1836 ( 1836-08-16 ) , the absent Santa Cruz was replaced by Assembly President Luis José de Orbegoso y Moncada Galindo .

Under the rule of the tread power, the organization of state life was entrusted to the later interim president of the state of Northern Peru ( Spanish Presidente del Estado Nor-Peruano en la Confederación Peruano-Boliviana ).

Actually ceased to exist on February 23, 1839 ( 1839-02-23 ) , with the termination of the powers of interim president Jose de la Riva Aguero .

Agustin Gamarra opposed the creation of the Confederation of Peru and Bolivia and, with the support of Chile, began armed resistance. After the defeat of the supreme tread confederation of Andres de Santa Cruz January 20, 1839 ( 1839-01-20 ) of the year at the Battle of Jungai and his flight to Ecuador , separate governing bodies of the South and North were replaced by the organs of a single Peru.

Восстановление общеперуанских органов власти было начато после занятия столицы восставшими, когда открытым собранием Лимы ( исп. Cabildo abierto en Lima ) 25 августа 1838 ( 1838-08-25 ) года А. Гамарра был провозглашён президентом республики. 15 августа 1839 ( 1839-08-15 ) года на Всеобщем конгрессе Уанкайо была принята новая конституция и подтверждены полномочия А. Гамарры как временного президента страны ^[47] . После проведения в январе 1840 года общенациональных выборов А. Гамарра 10 июля 1840 ( 1840-07-10 ) года был провозглашён конституционным президентом. Он погиб 18 ноября 1841 ( 1841-11-18 ) года в битве при Ингави в ходе очередной перуано-боливийской войны ^[48] .

After the death of A. Gamarra, power passed to the President of the Council of State ( Spanish Presidente del Consejo de Estado ) - which corresponded to the vice-president of the country - Manuel Menendez . On January 28, 1843 ( 1843-01-28 ) , he revolted and proclaimed himself the supreme director of the republic ( Spanish Supremo Director de la República ) Manuel Ignacio de Vivanko , which led to a series of alternate presidents - supporters of M. Menendez - and appointed M I. de Vivanko of the provisional governors of Peru ( Spanish Gobernante interino del Perú ), while M.I. de Vivanko himself arrived in the capital on April 7, 1843 ( 1843-04-07 ) , where he created the government directory ( Spanish directorio ) . This was the reason for the civil war for the restoration of the constitution of 1839 and the powers of M. Menendez ^[49] . The rebels created a temporary supreme ruling junta ( Spanish Suprema junta de gobierno ) of the "free departments", and after the victory on July 22, 1844 ( 1844-07-22 ) , the Russian at the Battle of Carmen Alto restored the constitutional powers of M. Menendez on October 7, 1844 ( 1844-10-07 ) ^[50] .

The constitutional order established for a decade was disrupted by the liberal revolution that began in December 1853. After the defeat on January 5, 1855 ( 1855-01-05 ) , at the Battle of La Palma supporters of President H.R. Ecenike and his flight, the leader of the uprising, Ramón Castilla y Marquesado, legitimized his interim president’s powers, and later won the election in 1858 ^[51] . Despite the revolt of Manuel Ignacio de Vivanko in the south of the country, and later the war with Ecuador ^[52] , he constitutionally transferred the authority to the Russian-winning 1862 Miguel de San Romana ^[50] . However, after the death of M. de San Roman on April 3, 1863 ( 1863-04-03 ) , the series of power transitions between his vice presidents began again until November 28, 1865 ( 1865-11-28 ) as a result of the uprising against the terms of the Vivanko-Parekh agreement , called to end the First Pacific War with Spain, Mariano Ignacio Prado Ochoa ^[53] did not become the supreme head of the republic ( Spanish Jefe Supremo de la República ), on February 15, 1867 ( 1867-02-15 ) , who won the congressional election. At the constitutional congress convened by him he secured the adoption of a new constitution , and on August 31, 1867 ( 1867-08-31 ) , in accordance with her, he was elected constitutional president.

However, already in the autumn of 1867 in Arequipa, the second vice-president of the last constitutionally elected president, M. de San Roman, Pedro Dieu Canseco Corbacho , rebelled for the restoration of the 1860 constitution . It was crowned with success. P. Die Canseco again became interim president, repealed the new constitution and held presidential elections , which won and became on August 2, 1868 ( 1868-08-02 ) , the constitutional president of Jose Balta . After winning the next election Manuel Pardo y Lavallier H. Balta, the first civilian in Peru’s history, was overthrown on July 22, 1872 ( 1872-07-22 ) as a result of the uprising of Colonels Gutierrez and executed on July 26, 1872 ( 1872-07-26 ) of the year ^[50] .

• Persons who formed parallel authorities, in the presence of constitutional or otherwise recognized authorities (for example, waging armed struggle with them and controlling a significant part of the territory or the capital), are shown in khaki in the first column of the table.
• The dates of the beginning and end of the temporary exercise of powers of the head of the executive branch (while maintaining the permanent powers of the principal, usually constitutional person) are shown in italics .

After winning the next election The first civilian in Peru’s history, Manuel Pardo y Lavalle, the current constitutional president, José Balta, was overthrown on July 22, 1872 ( 1872-07-22 ) as a result of the uprising of Colonels Gutierrez and executed on July 26, 1872 ( 1872-07-26 ) of the year ^[50] . The eldest of the four colonel brothers, Thomas Gutierrez , was proclaimed supreme ruler ( sp. Jefe Supremo ), but on the day of the execution of H. Balta was killed by the rebellious people, like the other two brothers ^[50] . August 2, 1872 ( 1872-08-02 ) , the constitutional president M. Prado y Lavalle, representative of the Civil Party . In the historiography of Peru, this is the beginning of a period called the “First Civilization” ( Spanish: El Primer Civilismo ), since the government passed to civilians ^[61] . Elections of 1876 won and took office on August 2, 1876 ( 1876-08-02 ) , his same party member Mariano Ignacio Prado Ochoa (who led Peru in 1865-1868). After the unsuccessful start of the Second Pacific War with Chile , with the permission of the Congress, on December 18, 1879 ( 1879-12-18 ) , he transferred the authority to the First Vice President Luis La Puerta as transitional president of the republic ( Spanish Presidente Transitorio de la República ), himself sailed to Europe to conclude contracts for the supply of weapons ^[53] .

However, already on December 23, 1879 ( 1879-12-23 ) , his successor was overthrown by Nicholas de Pierola , who proclaimed himself the supreme ruler ( Spanish Jefe Supremo ), who fled on January 15, 1881 ( 1881-01-15 ) , after the start of the assault on Lima by the Chilean troops. The remaining Peruvian politicians elected March 12, 1881 ( 1881-03-12 ) as interim president at the open town hall Magdalen Francisco García Calderón , and on July 10, 1881 ( 1881-07-10 ) , they approved him as president at the congress in Chorillos . Not agreeing to Chile’s territorial concessions, he was arrested on September 28, 1881 ( 1881-09-28 ) by the occupying Chilean forces, on November 6, 1881 ( 1881-11-06 ), he agreed to resign and was deported to Chile ^[56] . At the same time, N. de Pierola, wishing to continue the war, on July 29, 1881 ( 1881-07-29 ) , organized a “government in evacuation” at the national assembly he convened in Ayacucho , but, having met with opponents' speeches in various cities, December 28 1881 ( 1881-12-28 ) , he resigned as head of state and left for Europe ^[50] .

On the day of the arrest of F. García Calderón, his vice-president ( Spanish Vicepresidente ) Lisardo Montero Flores was sworn in to the Cajamarca court as interim president. He continued the policy of abandoning territorial concessions and was forced to leave the capital by establishing a government in Arequipa ^[62] .

Over the next few years, anarchy swept Peru, different parts of the country were governed by different governments: the north of the country was controlled by Miguel Iglesias , the central part by Andres Avelino Cáceres . M. Iglesias, being the commander of the army in the north of Peru, in the manifest, called "The Creek of Montana" On August 31, 1882 ( 1882-08-31 ) he proclaimed himself the supreme ruler ( Spanish: Jefe Supremo ) in order to end the Second Pacific War with Chile at the cost of territorial concessions. On December 30, 1882 ( 1882-12-30 ) , at the Assembly of the North he convened in Kahamarq , he was proclaimed president of regeneration (restoration, rebirth). On October 20, 1883 ( 1883-10-20 ) , he signed a peace treaty in which the Iquique area was attached to Chile, and Chilean control was established over the territory with the cities of Arica and Tacna before a plebiscite was held on their affiliation. On March 11, 1884 ( 1884-03-11 ) , the convened constitutional assembly ratified this treaty, electing M. Iglesias as constitutional president on March 1, 1884 ( 1884-03-01 ) ^[63] .

Many political and military leaders of Peru sharply protested against the conclusion of peace on such conditions. On July 16, 1884 ( 1884-07-16 ) , Andres Avelino Cáceres , who was in central Peru and was vice president of Licardo Montero Flores forced to leave the country, proclaimed himself president to continue the armed struggle against Chile, which marked the beginning of the civil war . A. Casares inflicted a military defeat on M. Iglesias, but this did not lead to his popularity. December 3, 1885 ( 1885-12-03 ) , without receiving support in Congress, they both resigned ^[63] . As a result, the congress transferred the powers of the head of state before the election to the President of the Council of Ministers ( Spanish Presidente del Consejo de Ministros ) Antonio Arenas , placing him at the head of the interim government junta ( Spanish Presidente de la Junta Provisional de Gobierno ), which marked the beginning of the period in historiography of Peru called "National Reconstruction" ^[64] .

• Persons who formed parallel authorities, in the presence of constitutional or otherwise recognized authorities (for example, waging armed struggle with them and controlling a significant part of the territory or the capital), are shown in khaki in the first column of the table.
• The dates of the beginning and end of the temporary exercise of powers of the head of the executive branch (while maintaining the permanent powers of the principal, usually constitutional person) are shown in italics .

At the end of the civil war Congress transferred the powers of the head of state before the election to the President of the Council of Ministers ( Spanish Presidente del Consejo de Ministros ) Antonio Arenas , placing him at the head of the interim government junta ( Spanish Presidente de la Junta Provisional de Gobierno ), which marked the beginning of the period in the historiography of Peru called "National Reconstruction" ^[64] . After the elections held in 1886 , which won the representative of the Constitutional Party Andres Avelino Cáceres , constitutionalists headed Peru until March 20, 1895 ( 1895-03-20 ) , when the second term of his powers was interrupted as a result of a new civil war , which was caused by the controversial election results of 1894 . He resigned and emigrated after being forced to take refuge in the presidential palace. ^[61] On the same day, a provisional government junta of his opponents was formed, led by Manuel Candamo . Elections of 1895 years won the representative of the Democratic Party Nicolas de Pierola , which was the beginning of the period of constitutional oligarchic governments that lasted until 1919, which in historiography was called the “Aristocratic Republic” ^[61] .

On February 4, 1914 ( 1914-02-04 ) , the chief of staff, Colonel Oscar Benavides, ousted the constitutional president Guillermo Billinghurst (who was the representative of the Democratic Party ) from power, with the support of the opposition congress, which is under the control of the Civil Party . Initially becoming president of the government junta ( Spanish Presidente de la Junta de Gobierno ), on May 15, 1914 ( 1914-05-15 ) , he was elected by the interim president of the republic ( Spanish Presidente provisorio de la República ) for the period until the new elections ^{[ 61]} .

Selected in 1915, for the second term of Jose Pardo y Barreda on July 4, 1919 ( 1919-07-04 ) , he was overthrown by Augusto Lehi , who left the Civil Party, returned to the country and won the 1919 election . His victory was called into question by the leadership of the Civil Party; fearing the cancellation of the election results, A. Legia proclaimed himself interim president, dissolved the congress and initiated the adoption of a new constitution ^{[60] [61]} .

• The dates of the beginning and end of the temporary exercise of powers of the head of the executive branch (while maintaining the permanent powers of the principal, usually constitutional person) are shown in italics .

Augusto Lehi , who left the Civil Party, returned to the country and won the 1919 election . His victory was called into question by the leadership of the Civil Party; fearing the cancellation of the election results, A. Legia proclaimed himself interim president, dissolved the congress and initiated the adoption of the National Assembly convened by him on September 24, 1919 ( 1919-09-24 ) December 27, 1919 ( 1919-12-27 ) of the new constitution which was published on January 18, 1920 ( 1920-01-18 ) .

The National Assembly on October 12, 1919 ( 1919-10-12 ) also confirmed the authority of A. Lehi as the constitutional president elected in the 1919 election. Since there was no restriction on the multiple occupation of the presidency in the new constitution, A. Legia was re-elected in 1924 and 1929, establishing a personality cult regime that lasted 11 years and was called “Oncenio de Leguía” in historiography of Peru (from Spanish once - “eleven”) ^[60] . On August 25, 1930 ( 1930-08-25 ) after the uprising in Arequipa of General Luis Miguel Sanchez Cerro, General Manuel Maria Ponce Brusset made a coup in the capital. On August 27, 1930 ( 1930-08-27 ) he transferred his authority to L. Sanchez Cerro, who flew into the capital, who created the government junta, which was approved by the Congress ^[33] . Until October 11, 1931 ( 1931-10-11 ) , the year of general elections 1931 four provisional leaders of the country were replaced, three of whom were appointed by the created “assembly of the elect” ( Spanish: Asamblea de Notables ), which included the top of the state, judicial and spiritual authorities. L. Sanchez Cerro won the election and became constitutional president, but was killed on April 30, 1933 ( 1933-04-30 ) during a military review by a member of the pan-Latin American People's Revolutionary Alliance ^[33] .

In the general elections of 1931, delegates to the Constitutional Congress were also elected , which adopted the new constitution published on April 9, 1933 ( 1933-04-09 ) ^[13] , and after the death of L. Sanchez, Cerro elected General Oscar Benavides as the new constitutional president. After the cancellation of the election results of 1936 O. Benavides extended his powers until 1939 ^[67] .

Winner of the 1939 elections Manuel Prado took office on December 8, 1939 ( 1939-12-08 ) . He represented the broad “Conservative Coalition” from 12 parties ^[43] . The domestic policy of his cabinet as a whole continued the policy of Oscar Bonavides (while democratic rights were significantly limited, which allowed us to refer to the period as “weak democracy” in historiography), in foreign policy Peru won the war with Ecuador (1941) and secured significant territories in upper Amazonia , and after the outbreak of World War I, the first among the Latin American countries to break off relations with the Axis powers .

In the elections of 1945 the victory was won by a Russian candidate running from the National Democratic Front (Alliance of Leftist Parties) ^[56] Jose Bustamante , supported by the Communist Party and the Pan-Latin American People's Revolutionary Alliance (APRA), led by Victor Ayia de La Torre , one of the leaders of the national congress. Initially, the new president made efforts to democratize society, restoring freedom of the press and many civil rights, freeing political prisoners, and starting purges in the armed forces. However, soon there was a gap between him and V. Ayia de la Torre, after which the APRA parliamentary faction opposed the government, and its militants resumed terrorist attacks throughout the country. H. Bustamante was forced to dissolve the ministerial cabinet and form a new one, consisting mainly of the military, in which, on January 12, 1947 ( 1947-01-12 ) , General Manuel Audria was appointed Minister of Government and Police ( Spanish Ministro de Gobierno y Policía ) Chief of Staff during the war with Ecuador). In June, M. Audria demanded the ban of the APRA and the arrest or deportation of its leaders. Having received the president’s refusal, the cabinet resigned, which caused a crisis in relations between the president and the armed forces. On October 3, 1948 ( 1948-10-03 ) , the uprising of a part of the fleet in whose organization APRA was accused was crushed in Callao ; the organization’s headquarters was occupied by troops, property was seized, its newspapers were banned, and several leaders were arrested ^[67] . On October 27, 1948 ( 1948-10-27 ) , M. Odria, at the head of the garrison in Arequipa , opposed the president, proclaiming the “Restorative Revolution” ( Spanish Revolución Restauradora ). On October 29, 1948 ( 1948-10-29 ) , the Lima garrison joined the rebellion under the command of General Zenon Noriega , who deported President H. Bustamante to Argentina and assumed power as interim chairman of the government junta ( Spanish Presidente interino de la Junta de Gobierno del Perú ) ^[54] . On November 1, 1948 ( 1948-11-01 ) , he transferred the authority to M. Odria, who arrived in the capital.

The next eight-year period, called “Ochenio” (from the Spanish ocho - eight) is characterized by the reign of General Manuel Odria , first as the head of the government junta, and after his victory in the 1950 elections - as the constitutional president ^[73] .

After winning the 1956 election Manuel Prado July 28, 1956 ( 1956-07-28 ) , re-became president of the country and continued the reforms launched earlier, including an amnesty for arrested and deported politicians. In the elections of 1962 not one of the candidates won a third of the votes necessary for direct election, so the right of choice passed to the national congress. However, after reporting electoral fraud in some departments, the Joint Command of the Armed Forces demanded that the elections be canceled. After receiving a negative response from the National Electoral Jury, the military overthrew President M. Prado at dawn on July 18, 1962 ( 1962-07-18 ) (11 days were left until his presidential term) and formed the military government junta Spanish. Junta Militar de Gobierno , originally consisting of four members of the Joint Command, and on July 20, 1962 ( 1962-07-20 ) expanded its composition to include civilians ^[74] . In the repeat elections in 1963 the victory was won by Fernando Belaunde Terry , who ran for the Popular Action Party ^[67] . The policy of moderate reforms carried out during this period gave reason to secure the name “Moderate Civil Reformism” in Peruvian historiography ( Spanish: Reformismo civil moderado ).

On October 3, 1968 ( 1968-10-03 ) , a military coup was carried out , President Fernando Belaunde was forcibly deported to Argentina. The Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces was formed led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado , focused on leftist forces ^[75] . The revolutionary government proclaimed a nationalist, anti-imperial and anti-oligarchic program (outlined in the "Inca Plan"). An ambitious agrarian reform was carried out, mass nationalization of banks and companies, conditions were created for the development of large state industry. On the other hand, radio, television and the press were placed under control ^[76] . Since 1974, the government has faced a series of mounting protests. On February 1, 1975 ( 1975-02-01 ) , a police strike began in Lima, whose forces were attacked by troops with armored units at midnight from February 4 to 5, the result was an undetermined number of killed and wounded ^[77] . On the morning of February 5, riots broke out in Lima (named after the capital “Limasso” ), crushed by troops (officially announced 86 dead, 155 wounded, 1012 detained and 53 police officers brought to justice) ^[78] .

On August 29, 1975 ( 1975-08-29 ) , General Francisco Morales Bermudez , who was appointed President of the Council of Ministers ( Spanish Presidente del Consejo de Ministros del Perú ) since February, carried out a bloodless coup (called “ Tacnaso ” ( Spanish Tacnazo - because the manifesto The dismissal of Juan Velasco Alvarado was proclaimed in the city of Tacna .) The manifesto, which proclaimed the goal of eliminating the "personalism and deviations" that impede the revolutionary process, was supported by the Armed Forces and the police. H. Velasco Alvarado, who suffered two heart attacks and amputation of legs and as a result of embolism , retired to his residence.This period, known in historiography as “Military radical reformism and fourth militarism” ( Spanish El reformismo militar radical y el cuarto militarismo ), was completed by the successful holding of the 1980 elections , which won the overthrown in 1968, Fernando Belaunde Terry .

After the victory in the 1980 elections Fernando Belaunde Terry July 28, 1980 ( 1980-07-28 ) , re-became president of the country, after which until now the change of power in Peru has been carried out in constitutional order.

An exception was the auto-flip , committed by President Alberto Fujimori on April 5, 1992 ( 1992-04-05 ) with the support of the Armed Forces, through which he dissolved the two houses of Congress, after which he convened the Democratic Constituent Congress (elected November 22, 1992 ( 1992-11-22 ) years), promulgated on December 29, 1993 ( 1993-12-29 ) years, the current constitution (entered into force on January 1, 1994 ( 1994-01-01 ) of the year) ^[1] . On January 9, 1993 ( 1993-01-09 ) , the Democratic Constituent Congress, which began work, confirmed the authority of A. Fujimori, after which he won the election twice more, but on November 21, 2000 ( 2000-11-21 ) , he fled to Japan, from where he sent his resignation letter ^[80] . Another case of the president’s resignation was the voluntary resignation on March 23, 2018 ( 2018-03-23 ) of Pedro Pablo Kuczynski , who was accused of bribing congressmen during a repeated attempt to impeach ^[2] . In both cases, the resignation of the presidential powers in the constitutional order was transferred: in the first case, to the President of Congress Valentin Paniagua ^[81] , in the second to the First Vice-President Martin Wiscarre ^[82] .

Despite the general democratization of Peruvian society, the period from 1980 to 2000 is called the “Age of Terrorism” , which is associated with the activities of the Maoist organization “Communist Party of Peru - The Shining Path” ( Spanish: Partido Comunista del Perú - Sendero Luminoso), founded in 1970 ), which switched to armed guerrilla warfare on May 17, 1980 ( 1980-05-17 ) and stopped it mainly in 2000 ^[83] .