Italian language

The Italian language has developed on the basis of Romanesque dialects of Italy, dating back to folk Latin. The literary Italian language is based on the Tuscan dialect, that is, the region where the Etruscans previously lived. It was believed that the features of the Tuscan dialect are associated with the Etruscan substrate ^[7] , but at present it is considered obsolete ^[8] .

The history of the Italian language is divided into a number of periods, the first of which covers the time from the 10th century , when the first records in the folk language ( Verona riddle , 9th century ; Capuan litigation , 960 and 963 years ) until the 13th century , the time when the dominance of the Florentine standard begins . At the very early stage, dialectal monuments are created mainly in the center and in the south of the country, these are usually legal documents and religious poetry. Montecassino Monastery becomes a major center of learning. Later, by the end of the XII century , separate centers of development of the literary tradition were formed in dialects: Sicily ( courtly poetry ), Bologna , Umbria , etc. The Tuscan tradition is especially rich, which has a significant genre diversity. At the same time, along with the "folk" language in Italy, Latin , Old French and Old Provencal languages ​​are used .

At the end of the 13th century , the school of the “new sweet style” ( dolce stil nuovo ) was formed, which took the Tuscan dialect as a basis. The most significant figures of Tuscan literature of the XIII-XIV centuries - Dante , Boccaccio and Petrarch . In his treatises "Feast" ( Convivio ) and "On Folk Eloquence" ( De vulgari eloquentia ), Dante substantiated the thesis that it is possible to create works on the folk language on any topic - from artistic to religious. He called such an "enlightened" folk language volgare illustre , although Dante did not believe that any one dialect possessed all the necessary qualities.

In the XIV century, the processed Tuscan dialect, guided by the samples of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, becomes, in fact, a common Italian literary language ^[9] . The period of the XV-XVI centuries is called Central Italian . At this time, there are more and more statements about the superiority of the folk, or rather Tuscan language over Latin ( Leon Battista Alberti , Angelo Poliziano ), the first grammar appears ("Rules of the Florentine Folk Language", 1495). Writers from other regions, such as the Neapolitan Jacopo Sannadzaro , try to bring the language of their works closer to the Tuscan standard.

In the 16th century , the “ Controversy of Language ” took place in Italy ( Questione della lingua ), after which it finally became customary to take the language of classical authors of the 14th century as a model: Pietro Bembo , who opposed the theory of “Tuscanism”, proposed to take as a basis living modern speech of Tuscany, and the theory of “court language” ( lingua cortigiana ), guided by the Uzus of court circles throughout Italy ^[10] . As a result, prescriptive publications oriented specifically to this theory begin to appear, in particular printed grammars (“Grammar Rules of the Folk Language” by Giovanni Fortunio , “Three Sources” by Niccolo Liburnio ) ^[11] and dictionaries. Despite this, in the Middle Italian period, there are many living Tuscan features in literary works that did not finally stay within the norm (for example, the ending is a singular imperfect in the first person of the indicator : cantava 'I sang', modern cantavo , postposition object cliques : vedoti 'see you', modern ti vedo ), primarily among Tuscan writers such as Machiavelli .

In the XVII and XVIII centuries, the position of Tuscan as a single literary language of Italy continued to strengthen, other varieties began to be considered as “dialects”. In the XVII century, the fundamental dictionary of the Academy della Kruska appears (three editions: 1612 , 1623 and 1691 ), fixing many archaisms and Latinisms . The Italian language begins to be used in science ( Galileo ), in philosophy, its use in literature and theater continues ( comedy del arte ). In the 18th century, the awakening of Italian self-consciousness began, in particular on the basis of a single language ( L. A. Muratori ), ideas again appeared about the need to bring the literary language closer to the popular one ( M. Cesarotti ). At the same time, a new flowering of literary work begins in dialects ( Carlo Goldoni writes plays in the Venetian dialect , Gioacchino Belli writes poems in Romanesque ).

After Risorgimento, the literary Italian language acquires official status, although the vast majority of Italians do not use it. The formation of a modern language begins, in which the work of Milanese Alessandro Manzoni played a large role. A serious study of Italian dialects begins ( G.I. Ascoli ). At the same time, government attempts to expand the use of the Italian language lead to the fact that the position of dialects begins to weaken. A major role was played by the First World War , during which literary language was often the only means of communication for soldiers from different regions, and the policy of the Mussolini government. After the Second World War , the rapid spread of the literary language through universal education and the media begins. At the same time, there is an active resettlement of people from the south to the north of the country and from villages to cities, which leads to the leveling of dialects and an increase in the role of the literary Italian language.

The Italian language uses the Latin alphabet with additional diacritics . Digraphs are also common.

The letters c and g denote the sounds [k] and [g] before the vowels of the non-front row ( o , u , a ), and before the vowels e , i they are read as [ʧ] and [ʤ] respectively. In the combinations “ ci , gi + vowel”, the letter i is not readable, but only means the reading of c and g as an affricate ( ciao 'hi' / 'bye' [')ao] ), unless the stress is on i . The combinations cie , gie in the modern language do not differ in pronunciation from ce , ge ( [ʧe] and [ʤe] ). They are used in few roots ( cieco 'blind', but ceco 'Czech') and in the plural of feminine names after vowels: valigia 'bag', pl. h. valigie (not valige ). The trigraph sci stands for [ʃ] .

The sounds [k] and [g] before i , e are denoted by ch , gh (cf. also sch [sk] ): ghiaccio 'ice' [ˈg ^j jaʧːo] , che [k ^j e] 'what'.

The letter h does not have its own sound meaning. It is used in the digraphs ch , gh (and the sch sch ), in borrowings, in interjections ( ahi 'alas'), and also in order to distinguish the forms of the verb avere 'have' from other homonymous words: ho 'I have' ( o 'or'), hai 'you have' ( ai is the combined form of the preposition a and the article i ), ha 'he (a) has' ( a 'to'), hanno 'they have' ( anno 'year').

The digraphs gl and gn denote the palatal sonants [ʎ] ('ll') and [ɲ] ('ny'). The combination of [ʎ] with any vowel other than i requires the writing of the gli trif : cf. gli [ʎi] ('li') - change of article i , or 'him'; but migliaia [miʎˈʎaja] ('milaya') is a thousand.

The letter q is used only in the combination qu , denoting [kw] . The double correspondence qu looks like a trigraph cqu : acqua 'water', nacque '(he) was born' (exceptions: soqquadro 'mess', biqquadro ' bécar ').

The letters i and u can denote both vowels [i] and [u] , and glides [j] and [w] . Usually, in the vicinity of another vowel, they indicate glides, if they are not stressed or the suffix -ia is involved . This stress is usually not indicated on the letter: Russia [ˈrus.sja] ' Russia ', but trattoria [trat.to.ˈri.a] 'inn'. Compare, however, capìi [ka.ˈpi.i] 'I understand.'

The letters e and o can mean both more closed [e] , [o] , and more open [ɛ] , [ɔ] . If there is no sign of an acute or gravel above them, they do not differ: legge 'law' ( [ˈleʤːe] ), but legge 'he (a) reads' ( [ˈlɛʤːe] ).

The signs of the acute and grave are used primarily to indicate that the last syllable is stressed, and if the stressed vowel is i , u or a , then gravis is always used: città 'city', gioventù 'youth', capì 'he (a ) understood. If the vowel belongs to the middle rise, then gravis is used to indicate openness, and the acute is closed: perché 'why' [perˈke] , tè [tɛ] 'tea'.

In addition, the signs of the acute and grave are placed over some full-stroke forms to distinguish them from homographs , which indicate unstressed words: dà 'he (a) gives' and da ' from ', sì ' yes' and si '-sya (cf. also è 'he (a) is' and e 'and').

The letter j is used in a number of borrowings and personal names that preserve the traditional spelling (cf. Juventus ). In the old texts, j appears in the plural endings of the names on -io : principj 'beginnings' (morphologically principi-i , compare principio 'beginnings') ^[12] .

Phonetics and Phonology

In the field of phonetics and phonology, the Italian language against the background of other romance languages ​​is quite typical. In the field of vocalism, the “Italian type” was developed (in particular, the coincidence of the Latin short vowels of the upper rise and the long vowels of the middle rise in the vowels of the upper-middle rise). In phonology, the formal opposition of open and closed vowels is preserved, which is usually the case for new Romance languages ​​(French, Portuguese, Catalan), although its role in phonemic meaning is small. Unstressed syllables for the most part are well preserved. In the field of consonants, the Italian language is characterized by a rather large conservatism: quantitative oppositions (heminates) are preserved, processes of inter-vocal weakening of consonants do not occur or occur irregularly.

Italian words are pronounced the same way as they are written, but, unlike the Russian language, there is no reduction in the Italian language, in other words, vowels in an unstressed position are pronounced as distinctly as in a stressed one. The pronunciation of consonants is also much more intense and clearer than in Russian, and before the vowels e, i, the consonants are never softened.

Vowels

The composition of the vowel monophthongs of the literary Italian language is presented in the table:

The full set is presented only in stressed syllables, in unstressed contrasting of two rows of middle vowels is removed in favor of [e] , [o] ^[13] .

In Italian, there are also diphthongs (combinations of vowels with [j] , [w] ): poi [pɔj] 'sweat', buono [ˈbwɔno] 'good' - and triftones : buoi 'bulls'. Moreover, from the phonological point of view, most of these combinations are not diphthongs, but are considered as conjugations of vowels and glides ^[13] . True diphthongs are, in particular, uo and ie , cf. buono and bontà 'kindness' ( uo is involved in alternation).

The emphasis in the Italian language usually falls on the penultimate syllable (such words are called “ parole piane ” in Italian tradition: càsa 'home', giornàle 'newspaper'. Words with an accent on the third syllable from the end (“broken lines”, parole are also frequent ) sdrucciole ) .In this class there are a lot of words with unstressed suffixes: simpàtico 'cute', edìbile 'edible'. In addition, this includes verbs to which enclitics do not affect the arrangement of stress, and 3 verbs of the plural of the present tense with ending -no, also does not change the accent: lavòrano 'they work dissolved '(as lavòra' (s) he works '), scrìvi-gli' write-it '(as scrìvi' write '). A number of words have a fixed accent on the third from the end of a syllable: zùcchero' sugar ', àbita' one ( a) lives. "

Words with accent on the last syllable are called “truncated” ( parole tronche ). These are borrowings ( caffè 'coffee'), words going back to a certain type of Latin declension ( civiltà 'civilization' from Latin civilitas, civilitatis ), as well as some forms of future tense and simple perfection (see below on verb morphology). Finally, a rare type of word is words with an emphasis on the fourth syllable from the end (“double broken lines”, parole bisdrucciole ). They are formed either by adding one clitic to the "broken words" (or ending with -no ) ( àbitano 'they live'), or when adding two clitics to the “full” verb forms: scrìvi-glie-lo 'write-it-it' dimenticàndo-se-ne 'forgetting about it' (literally 'forgetting about it'). In this case, the letter stress is indicated only when it falls on the last syllable (see the section on spelling ).

Elysia in Italian

In the Italian language, elizions are usually exposed to:

1. indefinite feminine una if the next word begins with a : un'antica;
2. definitive articles of the singular lo , la : l'albero, l'erba;
3. one of the forms of the masculine plural gli if the next word begins with i : gl'Italiani, gl'Indiani;
4. the feminine plural article le is occasionally truncated in dialects and colloquial speech: l'erbe - but certainly the preferred option is to use the full form of this article: le erbe.
5. In addition, elizia is often used for some prepositions, pronouns, and adjectives:

• di : d'Italia;
• mi , ti , si , vi : m'ha parlato, v'illudono;
• grande , santo , bello , quello : grand'uomo, sant'Angelo, bell'albero, quell'amico.

Как видно из вышеприведённых примеров, элизия в итальянском языке — это выпадание одиночной гласной в конце слова.

В итальянском языке также наблюдаются выпадения слогов целиком, которые не маркируются апострофом и называются по-разному:

* афереза (afèresi) — опускание слога в начале слова;

* синкопа (sincope) — опускание слога в середине слова;

* апокопа (apocope, также troncamento) — опускание последнего слога (без присоединения последующего слова).

Морфология

На фоне остальных сильно аналитизированных западно-романских языков литературный итальянский язык отличается сохранением большей флективности форм существительных, что сближает его с румынским. Особую сложность в употреблении представляют собой интуитивные адвербиальные местоимения ci и ne , аналоги французских y и en , полностью отсутствующие в испанском.

Имена

У итальянского языка есть:

Два рода: мужской ( maschile ) и женский ( femminile ). Нет падежей, есть только предлоги ( di, a, da, con и т. д.).

Местоимения: io ('я'), tu ('ты'), lui ('он'), lei ('она'), noi ('мы'), voi ('вы'), loro ('они'). Формальные 'Вы' — Lei (единственное число) или Loro (множественное число). Есть падежи местоимений. Притяжательное прилагательное: mio ('мой'), tuo ('твой'), suo ('его'/'её'), nostro ('наш'), vostro ('ваш'), loro ('их').

Итальянский язык потерял латинский аналог для 'его', который звучал как ' ejus' , и начал использовать латинский аналог для 'свой' для этой цели. Латинский 'их', eorum , выжил, как и loro (от латинского illorum , 'тех'), который стал несклоняемым (нет * lora /* lori /* lore ).

Числительное

Verb

В итальянском языке существует три спряжения глаголов. Глаголы, заканчивающиеся на -are (volare , 'летать'), относятся к первому спряжению, на -ere (cadere , 'падать') — ко второму, и на -ire (capire , 'понять') — к третьему. Есть также возвратные глаголы: lavare , 'мыть'; lavarsi , 'мыться'. Все глаголы изменяются по лицам, то есть в каждом времени каждый глагол имеет 6 форм, три в единственном числе и три во множественном. Неправильные итальянские глаголы не подчиняются общим правилам образования форм в лицах, поэтому все формы каждого времени приходится запоминать ( verbi irregolari ).

Syntax

По наблюдению Сёрена (1984), синтаксис, как и прочие языковые черты тосканского диалекта, в целом характеризуются достаточно сложным и даже хаотичным переплетением северо-романских моделей с южно-романскими, перешедшими в современный литературный итальянский язык. К тому же выводу приходит и Прайс в анализе синтаксиса сравнительных конструкций итальянского языка, который обнаруживает сходства с испанской и французской моделями, но при этом не идентичен ни одной из них ^[14] .

• Итальянская традиция произношения латыни (п. 4.2.1)

• Большая российская энциклопедия : [в 35 т.] / гл. ed. Ю. С. Осипов . — М. : Большая российская энциклопедия, 2004—2017.
• Жолудева Л. И. Староитальянский язык: Фонетика. Morphology. Хрестоматия текстов XIII—XIV вв. М.: ЛЕНАНД, 2014. — 144 с. ISBN 978-5-9710-1315-0 .
• Зорько Г. Ф. , Майзель Б. Н. , Скворцова Н. А. Большой итальянско-русский словарь. М.: Русский язык, 2002. — 1018 с. — ISBN: 5-200-03056-0.
• Prati A. Vocabolario etimologico italiano. Torino, 1951.
• Bongioanni A. Nomi e cognomi . Torino, 1928.

• Аничков Е. В. Итальянский язык // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). - SPb. , 1890-1907.