Biology history

Antiquity

The foundations of knowledge about animals and plants were laid in the writings of Aristotle and his student Theophrastus . An important role was played by the works of Dioscorides , who compiled descriptions of medicinal substances (and among them about 600 plants), and Pliny , who tried to collect information about all natural bodies in his " Natural History ".

Aristotle (384–322 BC) left a significant number of works on animals. In treatises "On the parts of animals" and "History of animals" Aristotle considered the question of how to deal with the knowledge of animals, deal with one animal separately after another, or first learn the general for everyone, and then more and more particular, and did opt for the second method. In development of this plan, he, on the one hand, developed principles that should be followed when formulating definitions of certain groups of animals, listing their essential properties. On the other hand, he made a number of observations in search of the necessary connections between the individual properties of animals. For example, that all animals with bifurcated legs (artiodactyls) chew gum. In the work "On the generation of animals," Aristotle addressed questions about the reproduction and development of animals. In addition, he also owns a number of small zoological treatises. On the one hand, works on logic adjoin the zoological works of Aristotle, on the other, the treatise On the Soul. The descriptions of the structure and lifestyle of various animals in the works of Aristotle were sometimes very accurate, but many places subsequently suffered from errors in copying and translations in several languages. Among other things, he was the first to describe the so-called "Aristotelian lantern" - calcified armament of the mouth apparatus of sea ​​urchins ^[1] and live birth in sharks .

Theophrastus' book (370-280 BC) Research on plants developed Aristotle's ideas about the need to formulate definitions based on essential properties, but this time on plants.

Middle Ages

The decline of the Roman Empire was accompanied by the disappearance or degradation of previous knowledge, although doctors included many of the achievements of antiquity in their practice. The conquest of a significant part of the empire by the Arabs led to the fact that the works of Aristotle and other ancient authors were preserved in Arabic translation ^[2] .

Medieval Arab medicine , science and philosophy made an important contribution to the development of knowledge about life in the VIII-XIII centuries, during the so-called Golden Age of Islam , or the Islamic agrarian revolution . For example, in zoology, Al-Jahiz (781–869) already expressed ideas about evolution ^{[3] [4]} and food chains ^[5] . He was an early representative of geographical determinism , philosophical doctrine of the influence of natural conditions on the national character and development of nation states ^[6] . Iranian author Abu Hanifa ad-Dinawari (828–895) is considered the founder of Arab botany . In his “Book of Plants,” he described more than 637 plant species and discussed the phases of plant growth and development ^[7] . In anatomy and physiology, the Persian physician Ar-Razi (865–925) experimentally refuted Galen 's doctrine of the “ four vital juices ” ^[8] . The renowned physician Avicenna (980-1037) in his work “The Canon of Medicine ”, until the 17th century the remaining reference book of European physicians ^{[9] [10]} , introduced the concept of clinical research and pharmacology ^[11] . The Spanish Arab Ibn Zuhr (1091-1161), by opening, proved that scabies is caused by a subcutaneous parasite ^[12] , and also introduced experimental surgery ^[13] and medical research on animals ^[14] . During the famine in Egypt in 1200, Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi observed and studied the structure of human skeletons ^[15] .

Only a few European scientists gained fame in the Middle Ages. Among them, Hildegard of Bingen , Albert the Great and Frederick II (Holy Roman Emperor) made up the canon of natural history for early European universities , in which medicine was significantly inferior to the teaching of philosophy and theology ^[16] .

Rebirth

Only the Renaissance truly revived in Europe an interest in natural history and physiology . In 1543, the development of modern anatomy , based on the autopsy of human bodies , began with the book by Vesalius “ De humani corporis fabrica ”. Vesalius and his followers gradually replaced medieval scholasticism in medicine and physiology with empiricism , relying not so much on the authority of textbooks and abstract thinking, but on personal experience. Through herbal medicine, medicine also fueled interest in the study of plants. Brunfels , Fuchs and other authors of early publications on wild plants laid the foundation for a full-scale description of plant life ^[17] . The medieval genre of literature, the bestiary , about animals and their habits, with the works of Konrad Gesner and other authors of the 16th century, turned into a truly scientific direction ^[18] .

Artists such as Albrecht Durer and Leonardo da Vinci often worked side by side with naturalists and were also interested in the structure of the human and animal bodies, giving detailed descriptions of their anatomy ^[19] . The traditions of alchemy , supported by scientists such as Paracelsus , have contributed to the study of nature, inspiring researchers to experiment with both mineral and biological sources of pharmacological drugs ^[20] . The development of pharmacology has also contributed to the emergence of mechanism ^[21] .

XVII century

The most important events of the 17th century are the formation of a methodological natural history that laid the foundations for the systematics of animals and plants; the development of anatomy and the opening of the second circle of blood circulation; the beginning of microscopic studies, the discovery of microorganisms and the first description of plant cells, sperm and red blood cells of animals.

The completion of the “herbalists” tradition dates back to the 17th century. The Swiss doctor and botanist Caspar Baugin in his work “ Pinax Theatri Botanici ” collected all the plant species known at that time (about 6000), specifying synonyms. This was the last summary of such a scale, in which the tricks of "popular taxonomy" were still used. Groups of plants in the work of Bohen did not have characteristics indicating their distinctive features. Plant names were formed, as before, without strict rules, sometimes by adding modifier words to the name given by ancient Greek or Roman authors, sometimes by romanizing indigenous plant names. Bohen was familiar with the book of Cesalpino , but did not see the point in the application of the method, considering the establishment of synonyms more important. At the same time, from the middle of the 17th century, more and more works appeared, written in the tradition of methodological natural history, based on the work of Cesalpino.

Significant changes are observed in the field of anatomy and physiology of animals and plants. The English doctor William Harvey (1578-1657), making experiments with blood circulation and dissecting animals, made a number of important discoveries. He discovered venous valves that obstructed the flow of blood in the opposite direction, showed isolation of the right and left ventricles of the heart and opened a small circle of blood circulation (a similar discovery was made shortly before Miguel Servet burned by Calvinists for his theological views). Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680) and Marcello Malpigi (1628–1694) described the internal structure of many invertebrate animals. Malpigi described the vessels of plants and experimentally showed the presence of an upward and downward current in different vessels.

The Italian naturalist Francesco Redi (1626–1698) experimentally proved the impossibility of spawning flies from rotten meat (by tightening part of the pots with rotten meat with muslin, he was able to prevent the laying of eggs by flies). The already mentioned William Harvey made a detailed description of the development of chicken and a number of other animals and suggested that they all develop from eggs in one way or another, although he could not directly observe the eggs.

Finally, in the 17th century a completely new field of research was formed, connected with the invention of the microscope. The tractography “ Micrography ” published by Robert Hooke (1635–1703), which is devoted to the description of microscopic observations of a number of objects of animate and inanimate nature (cork, flea, ant, salt crystals, etc.), as well as material culture (needle point, razor blade) , a point in the book, etc.), caused a wide public resonance. In addition to serving as a source of inspiration for Jonathan Swift in some fragments of Gulliver's Travels , he created a fashion for microscopic studies, including biological objects. One of the zealous lovers of microscopes was the Dutch artisan Anthony van Levenguk (1632-1723), who made observations using simple microscopes made by him and sent the results of observations for publication to the Royal Society of London . Levenguk managed to describe and sketch a number of microscopic creatures ( rotifers , ciliates , bacteria ), red blood cells, and human sperm.

18th century

The parallel development of natural history on the one hand and anatomy and physiology on the other paved the way for the emergence of biology. In the field of natural history, the most significant events were the publication of the " Systems of Nature " by Karl Linney and the "General Natural History" by Georges Buffon .

The studies of Albrecht von Haller and Caspar Friedrich Wolf greatly expanded knowledge in the field of animal embryology and plant development. While Galler adhered to the concept of preformism , Wolf advocated the idea of epigenesis . Observations of the early development of the chicken allowed Wolf to show by the example of the formation of the tubular intestine from the initially flat rudiment that development cannot be reduced to purely quantitative growth without qualitative transformations.

The word "biology" from time to time appeared in the works of natural scientists until the 19th century, but its meaning was completely different at that time. Karl Linney , for example, called the "biologists" of the authors who composed the biographies of botanists. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, three authors at once ( Burdakh , Treviranus , Lamarck ) used the word “biology” in the modern sense to refer to the science of the general features of living bodies. Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus even put it in the title of the scientific work “Biologie; oder die Philosophie der lebenden Natur "(1802).

The most significant events of the first half of the 19th century were the formation of paleontology and the biological foundations of stratigraphy, the emergence of cell theory, the formation of comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, the development of biogeography and the widespread dissemination of transformative ideas. The central events of the second half of the 19th century were the publication of the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin and the spread of the evolutionary approach in many biological disciplines (paleontology, systematics, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology), the formation of phylogenetics, the development of cytology and microscopic anatomy, experimental physiology and experimental embryology, the formation concepts of a specific causative agent of infectious diseases, proof of the impossibility of spontaneous generation of life in modern times environmental conditions.

Chemists of that time saw a fundamental difference between organic and inorganic substances, in particular, in processes such as fermentation and decay . Since the days of Aristotle, they have been considered specifically biological. However, Friedrich Wöhler and Justus Liebig , following the Lavoisier methodology, showed that the organic world even then could often be analyzed by physical and chemical methods. In 1828, Wöhler chemically, that is, without the use of organic substances and biological processes, synthesized the organic substance urea , thereby presenting the first evidence to refute vitalism . Then the catalytic effect of acellular extracts ( enzymes ) on chemical reactions was discovered, due to which, by the end of the 19th century. the modern concept of enzymes was formulated, although the mathematical theory of enzymatic kinetics appeared only at the beginning of the 20th century ^[22] .

Physiologists such as Claude Bernard , using vivisection and other experimental methods, studied the chemical and physical properties of a living body, laying the foundations of endocrinology , biomechanics , the teaching of nutrition and digestion . In the second half of the XIX century. the variety and significance of experimental research both in medicine and in biology has continuously increased. The main task was controlled changes in life processes, and the experiment was at the center of biological education ^[23] .

In the XX century, with the rediscovery of Mendel's laws , the rapid development of genetics begins. By the 1920s not only the chromosomal theory of heredity is being formed, but also the first works appear that set the task of integrating the new doctrine of heredity and the theory of evolution. After the Second World War , the development of molecular biology begins. In the second half of the 20th century, significant progress was made in the study of life phenomena at the cellular and molecular level.

Classical Genetics

The year 1900 was marked by the “rediscovery” of Mendel’s laws . De Vries and other researchers independently came to understand the significance of Mendel’s work ^[24] . Soon after, cytologists came to the conclusion that the chromosomes are most likely to be the cell structures carrying the genetic material. In the years 1910-1915. Thomas Hunt Morgan and his team, working on the fruit fly Drosophila, developed the "Mendelian chromosome theory of heredity" ^[25] . Following Mendel’s example, they investigated the phenomenon of gene linkage from a quantitative point of view and postulated that genes are arranged linearly on the chromosomes, like beads on a string. They began to create gene maps of Drosophila genes, which became a widely used model organism, first for genetic and then molecular biological studies ^[26] .

De Frieze tried to combine the new genetic theory with the theory of evolution. He was the first to propose the term mutation for gene changes. In the 1920s – 1930s, population genetics appeared. In the works of Fisher , Haldane, and other authors, the theory of evolution, in the end, combined with classical genetics in the synthetic theory of evolution ^[27] .

In the second half of the 20th century, the ideas of population genetics had a significant impact on sociobiology and evolutionary psychology . In the 1960s, a mathematical theory of games appeared to explain altruism and its role in evolution through the selection of descendants. The synthetic theory of evolution was further developed, in which the concept of gene drift and other processes important for the emergence of highly developed organisms appeared ^[28] , which explained the reasons for the rapid evolutionary changes in the historically short time that previously formed the basis for the "theory of catastrophes" ^[29] . In 1980, Luis Alvarez proposed the meteorite hypothesis of the extinction of dinosaurs ^[30] . At the same time, in the early 1980s, other phenomena of mass extinction in the history of earthly life were statistically investigated ^[31] .

Biochemistry

By the end of the XIX century. The main pathways for the metabolism of drugs and poisons, protein, fatty acids, and urea synthesis were discovered ^[32] . At the beginning of the XX century. Vitamin research has begun. Improvement of laboratory work techniques, in particular, the invention of chromatography and electrophoresis stimulated the development of physiological chemistry, and biochemistry gradually separated from medicine into an independent discipline. In the 1920s and 1930s, Hans Krebs , Karl and Gerti Corey began to describe the main pathways of carbohydrate metabolism : the tricarboxylic acid cycle , glycolysis , gluconeogenesis . The study of the synthesis of steroids and porphyrins began . Between the 1930s and 1950s, Fritz Lipman and other authors described the role of adenosine triphosphate as a universal carrier of biochemical energy in the cell, as well as mitochondria as its main source of energy. These traditionally biochemical fields of research continue to develop so far ^[33] .

The origin of molecular biology

In connection with the advent of classical genetics, many biologists, including those working in the field of physical and chemical biology, tried to establish the nature of the gene . For this purpose, the Rockefeller Foundation has established several grants, and in 1938 the head of the scientific department of the Foundation Warren Weaver used the term molecular biology to designate a task. He is considered the author of the name of this area of ​​biology ^[34] .

Как и биохимия , смежные дисциплины бактериология и вирусология (позже объединённые в виде микробиологии ) в то время бурно развивались на стыке медицины и других естественных наук . После выделения бактериофага начались исследования вирусов бактерий и их хозяев ^[35] . Это создало базу для применения стандартизированных методов работы с генетически однородными микроорганизмами, которые давали хорошо воспроизводимые результаты, и позволило заложить основы молекулярной генетики .

Кроме микроорганизмов объектами генетических экспериментов стали мушка дрозофила, кукуруза и хлебная плесень, нейроспора густая , что позволило применять также методы биохимии, а появление электронного микроскопа и высокоскоростных центрифуг позволило пересмотреть даже само понятие «жизнь». Понятие о наследственности у вирусов, воспроизведение внеядерных нуклеопротеиновых структур усложнили ранее принятую теорию менделевских хромосом ^[36] .

В 1941 году Бидл и Тейтем сформулировали свою гипотезу «один ген — один фермент». В 1943 году Освальд Эйвери, продолжая работу, начатую Фредериком Гриффитом , показал, что генетическим материалом в хромосомах является не белок, как думали ранее, а ДНК . В 1952 году этот результат был подтвержден в эксперименте Херши — Чейз , и это был лишь один из многих важных результатов, достигнутых так называемой фаговой группой Дельбрюка . Наконец, в 1953 году Уотсон и Крик , основываясь на работе Мориса Уилкинса и Розалинды Франклин , предложили свою знаменитую структуру ДНК в виде двойной спирали. В своей статье « Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids » («Молекулярная структура нуклеиновых кислот») они заявили: «От нашего внимания не укрылось то, что специфическое спаривание, которое мы постулировали, одновременно позволяет сделать предположение о механизме копирования генетического материала» ^[37] . Когда через несколько лет механизм полуконсервативной репликации был подтвержден экспериментально, большинству биологов стало ясно, что последовательность оснований в нуклеиновой кислоте каким-то образом определяет и последовательность аминокислотных остатков в структуре белка. Но идею о наличии генетического кода сформулировал не биолог, а физик Георгий Гамов .

Развитие биохимии и молекулярной биологии во второй половине XX века

Расшифровка генетического кода заняла несколько лет. Эта работа была выполнена главным образом Ниренбергом и Кораной и закончена к концу 1960-х годов ^[38] . Тогда же Перуц и Кендрю из Кембриджа ^[39] впервые применили рентгеноструктурный анализ в сочетании с новыми возможностями вычислительной техники для исследования пространственной структуры белков ^[40] . Жакоб и Моно из Института Пастера исследовали строение lac оперона и открыли первый механизм регуляции генов . К середине 1960-х годов основы молекулярной организации метаболизма и наследственности были установлены, хотя детальное описание всех механизмов только начиналось ^{[41] [42]} . Методы молекулярной биологии быстро распространялись в другие дисциплины, расширяя возможности исследований на молекулярном уровне ^[43] . Особенно это было важно для генетики , иммунологии , эмбриологии и нейробиологии , а идеи о наличии «генетической программы» (этот термин был предложен Жакобом и Моно по аналогии с компьютерной программой ) проникли и во все остальные биологические дисциплины ^[44] .

В иммунологии в связи с достижениями молекулярной биологии появилась теория клональной селекции, которую развивали Ерне и Бёрнет ^[45] . В биотехнологии появление генной инженерии , начиная с 1970-х годов, привело к появлению широкого спектра продуцентов новых продуктов, в частности, лекарственных препаратов, таких как треонин и инсулин .

Генетическая инженерия основана прежде всего на применении техники рекомбинантных ДНК , то есть таких молекул ДНК, которые искусственно перестроены в лаборатории путём рекомбинации их отдельных частей ( генов и их фрагментов). Для разрезания ДНК применяют специальные ферменты рестриктазы , которые были открыты в конце 1960-х годов. Сшивание кусков ДНК катализирует другой фермент, лигаза . Так можно получить и ввести в бактерии ДНК, содержащую, например, ген резистентности к определённому антибиотику. Если бактерия, получив рекомбинантную ДНК, переживет трансформацию , она начнет размножаться на среде, содержащей данный антибиотик, и это будет обнаружено по появлению колоний трансгенного организма ^[46] .

Принимая во внимание не только новые возможности, но и потенциальную угрозу от применения таких технологий (в частности, от манипуляций с микроорганизмами, способными переносить гены вирусного рака) научное сообщество ввело временный мораторий на научно-исследовательские работы с рекомбинантными ДНК до тех пор, пока в 1975 году на специальной конференции не были выработаны рекомендации по технике безопасности при такого рода работах ^[47] . После этого наступил период бурного развития новых технологий.

К концу 1970-х годов появились методы определения первичной структуры ДНК , химического синтеза коротких фрагментов ДНК (олигонуклеотидов), введения ДНК в клетки человека и животных ( трансфекция ) ^[48] . Чтобы работать с генами человека и животных, необходимо было разобраться с различиями в устройстве генов прокариот и эукариот . Эта задача была в целом решена благодаря открытию сплайсинга ^[49] .

К 1980-м годам определение первичных последовательностей белков и нуклеиновых кислот позволило использовать их как признаки для систематики и особенно кладистики ; так появилась молекулярная филогенетика . К 1990 г на основании сравнительного анализа нуклеотидных последовательностей 16S рРНК Карл Вёзе предложил новую систему живых существ: царство монер было разделено на два домена эубактерий и архей , а остальные четыре царства (протист, грибов, растений и животных) — объединены в один домен эукариот ^[50] .

Появление в 1980-х годах техники ПЦР значительно упростило лабораторную работу с ДНК и открыло возможность не только для открытия новых ранее неизвестных генов, но и для определения всей нуклеотидной последовательности целых геномов , то есть для исчерпывающего описания структуры всех генов организма ^[51] . В 1990-х годах эта задача была в целом решена в ходе выполнения международного проекта « Геном человека » ^[52] .

По мнению Карла Вёзе (шире — по мнению Вёзе и Голденфельда), биология XXI века — это фундаментальная наука, основанная на эволюционных взглядах, подходящая к изучению жизни не при помощи редукционизма , как в XX веке , а при помощи холизма ^{[53] [54]} . После завершения проекта « Геном человека » было начато и проведено множество международных проектов: ENCODE , 1000 геномов , « Протеом человека », FANTOM ^[55] — связанных с системной биологией , а также такие проекты как OpenWorm , Human Brain Project , и т. д.

Одной из отличительных черт биологии XXI века является гражданская наука , ранее куда менее развитая. Примером могут служить такие проекты как EyeWire и Foldit .

По мнению историка науки Даниила Лебедева , отношение к изучению источников знаний в различных разделах исторической науки сильно отличается, но относительно биологии можно сказать, что по уровню развития историографии эта дисциплина занимает одно из последних мест ^[56] .

• Бабий Т. П., Коханова Л. Л., Костюк Г. Г. и др. Биологи: Биографический справочник. — Киев, 1984.
• История биологии с древнейших времен до наших дней. т. 1-2. М., 1972—1975.
• Мирзоян Э. Н. Этюды по истории теоретической биологии. 2-е изд., расш. — М., 2006. — 371 с. ISBN 5-02-033737-4 .

• International Society for History, Philosophy, and Social Studies of Biology — сайт общества истории, философии и социальных исследований в биологии
• История биологии на Historyworld.net
• История биологии на Bioexplorer.Net — коллекция ссылок по истории биологии