Baroque

One of the first monographs devoted to baroque was Wölflin 's book “Renaissance and Baroque” ( German: Renaissance und Barock , 1888). Baroque occupied the period between the Renaissance and Classicism , and in its later version it was called Rococo . The characteristic features of baroque Wölflin calls picturesque and passion. Dvorak singled out Mannerism from the early Baroque. Subsequently, Panofsky indicated a tendency to see in Baroque not an antithesis, but a continuation of the Renaissance.

In the sixteenth century, Italy - the first link in Renaissance art - lost economic and political power. On the territory of Italy, foreigners — Spaniards and French — begin to dominate, they dictate the conditions of politics, etc. Exhausted Italy has not lost the height of its cultural position — it remains the cultural center of Europe . The center of the Catholic world is Rome ; it is rich in spiritual powers.

The power in culture was manifested by adaptation to new conditions - the nobility and the church needed all to see their strength and wealth, but since there was no money for the construction of the palazzo , they turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. A style that can elevate them is becoming popular. So, at the end of the 16th century, baroque appeared in Italy.

The origin of the word baroque is more controversial than the names of all other styles. There are several versions of the origin. Portuguese barroco is a pearl of irregular shape that does not have an axis of rotation; such pearls were popular in the 17th century. In Italian baroco - a false syllogism, an Asian form of logic , a sophisticated technique based on a metaphor . Like pearls of irregular shape, baroque syllogisms, the falsity of which was hidden by their metaphor.

The use of the term by critics and art historians dates back to the 2nd half of the 18th century and refers, first, to figurative art and, consequently, also to literature. Initially, this term acquired a negative meaning. Ernst Gombrich wrote: “The word“ baroque ”, meaning“ bizarre ”,“ ridiculous ”,“ strange ”, also arose later as a caustic mockery, as it bogged down in the fight against the style of the 17th century. This label was launched by those who considered arbitrary combinations of classical forms in architecture unacceptable. With the word "baroque" they branded masterful deviations from the strict norms of the classics, which for them was tantamount to bad taste ” ^[2] . It was only at the end of the 19th century that Baroque was reevaluated, thanks to the European cultural context from impressionism to symbolism , which distinguishes ties with the Baroque era ^[3] .

One of the controversial theories suggests the origin of all these European words from the Latin bis-roca , twisted stone. Another theory is from the Latin verruca , a steep high place, a defect in a gem .

In different contexts, the word baroque could mean "pretentiousness", "unnaturalness", "insincerity", "elitism", "warped", "exaggerated emotionality." All these shades of the word baroque in most cases were not perceived as negative.

Finally, another theory suggests that this word in all the languages ​​mentioned is a parody from the point of view of linguistics , and its word formation can be explained by its meaning: unusual, unnatural, ambiguity and deceit.

The ambiguity of the Baroque style is explained by its origin. According to some researchers ^[4] , it was borrowed from the architecture of the Seljuk Turks .

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, the desire for greatness and splendor, to combine reality and illusion, to the fusion of arts (urban and palace and park ensembles , opera , cult music, oratorio ); at the same time, a tendency toward the autonomy of individual genres ( concerto grosso , sonata , suite in instrumental music). The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock that the Reformation and the teaching of Copernicus became for the 16th century. The concept of the world as rational and permanent unity, as well as the renaissance concept of man as a rational being, has become established in antiquity. In the words of Pascal , a person began to realize himself as "something between everything and nothing," "those who capture only the appearance of phenomena, but are not able to understand either their beginning or their end."

The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for urban residents from the upper and middle classes for the sake of entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - the promenade (walks in the park); instead of knightly tournaments - “carousels” (horseback riding) and card games ; instead of the mysteries , theater and a masquerade ball . You can add the appearance of swings and “fiery funs” ( fireworks ). In the interiors, portraits and landscapes took the place of icons , and music from spiritual turned into a pleasant play of sound.

The Baroque era rejects traditions and authorities as superstitions and prejudices. True, everything that is “clearly and distinctly” thought or has a mathematical expression, states the philosopher Descartes . Therefore, baroque is another century of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no accident that the word "baroque" is sometimes led to designate one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco . The first European park appears in the Palace of Versailles , where the idea of ​​the forest is expressed very mathematically: linden alleys and channels are as if drawn on a ruler, and the trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. In the armies of the Baroque era, who first received uniforms, much attention is paid to the “ drill ” - the geometric correctness of constructions on the parade ground.

The Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery and ignorance. (In the era of romanticism, naturalness will be viewed from a different angle and will become one of the main virtues.) A Baroque woman cherishes the pallor of her skin, on her elaborate hairstyle, corset and artificially expanded skirt on a whalebone frame . She is in high heels.

And the gentleman becomes the ideal man in the Baroque era - from the English. gentle : “soft”, “gentle”, “calm”. He prefers to shave his mustache and beard, choke on perfumes and wear powdered wigs. What is the use of force if they now kill by pulling the trigger of a musket ? In the Baroque era, naturalness is a synonym for atrocities, savagery, vulgarity and folly. For the philosopher Hobbes, a state of nature is a state characterized by anarchy and the war of all against all.

Baroque is characterized by the idea of ​​ennobling nature on the basis of reason. The need for something (“need”) cannot be tolerated, but “offer nicely in pleasant and courteous words” ( Youth of Honest Mirror , 1717). According to the philosopher Spinoza , drives are no longer the content of sin , but "the very essence of man." Therefore, the appetite is made out in an exquisite dining etiquette (it is in the Baroque era that forks and napkins appear); love interest - in a courteous flirtation , quarrels - in a refined duel .

Baroque is characterized by the idea of ​​a sleeping god - deism . God is not conceived of as a Savior, but as a Great Architect who created the world just like a watchmaker creates a mechanism. Hence, such a characteristic of the baroque worldview as mechanism . The law of conservation of energy, the absoluteness of space and time are guaranteed by the word of God. However, having created the world, God rested from his labors and does not interfere in the affairs of the Universe. It is useless to pray to such a God - one can only learn from Him. Therefore, the true guardians of the Enlightenment are not prophets and priests, but natural scientists. Isaac Newton reveals the law of universal gravitation and writes the fundamental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” ( 1689 ), and Karl von Linney systematizes biology (“ System of Nature ”, 1735 ). Academies of Sciences and scientific societies are established throughout European capitals.

The diversity of perception increases the level of consciousness - something like this says the philosopher Leibniz . Galileo for the first time directs the telescope toward the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun ( 1611 ), and Levenguk under the microscope discovers tiny living organisms ( 1675 ). Huge sailboats plow the expanses of the oceans, erasing white spots on the geographical maps of the world. Literary symbols of the era are travelers and adventurers: Robinson Crusoe , ship's doctor Gulliver and Baron Munchausen .

“In the Baroque era, the formation of a fundamentally new, different from medieval, allegorical thinking took place. A viewer has formed who is able to understand the language of the logo. Allegory has become the norm of artistic vocabulary in all types of plastic and spectacular arts, including such synthetic forms as festivities ” ^[5] .

The Baroque style in painting is characterized by the dynamism of compositions, “flatness” and splendor of forms, aristocracy and extraordinary plots. The most characteristic features of Baroque are flashy flowery and dynamism; a striking example is the work of Rubens and Caravaggio .

Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was nicknamed Caravaggio at his birthplace near Milan , is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting ^[6] . His paintings, written in religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the contemporary author of life, creating a contrast between the late antiquity and the New Age. The heroes are depicted in the twilight, from which the rays of light grab the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their characteristic. The followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who at first were called caravaggists, and the current itself was caravaggism ^[7] , such as Annibale Carracci (1560–1609) or Guido Reni (1575–1642), adopted a riot of feelings and the characteristic character of Caravaggio’s manner, as well as his naturalism in the image of people and events.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) at the beginning of the XVII century. studied in Italy, where he learned the manner of Caravaggio and Carrachi, although he arrived there only at the end of the course in Antwerp. He happily combined the best features of the painting schools of the North and the South, merging in his canvases the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, learning and spirituality. In addition to Rubens, international recognition was achieved by another master of the Flemish Baroque, Van Dyck (1599-1641). With the creativity of Rubens, a new style came to Holland, where he was picked up by Frans Hals (1580 / 85-1666), Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Vermeer (1632-1675). In Spain, in the manner of Caravaggio, Diego Velazquez created (1599-1660), and in France, Nicola Poussin (1593-1665), who, not satisfied with the Baroque school, laid the foundation for a new movement in his work - classicism .

Baroque architecture ( L. Bernini , F. Borromini in Italy, B.F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Commonwealth) is characterized by: spatial scope, cohesion, fluidity of complex, usually curved forms. There are often large-scaled colonnades , an abundance of sculptures on facades and in interiors, volutes , a large number of rivets, arched facades with a rake in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters . Domes take on complex shapes, often many-tiered, like the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The characteristic details of baroque are telamon (atlas), caryatid , mascaron .

In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556–1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna ( 1603 ). The main figure in the development of Baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini , whose first masterpieces in the new style belong to around 1620 . Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and the interiors , as well as other buildings. Significant contributions were made by Carlo Fontana , Carlo Rainaldi , Guarino Guarini , Baldassare Longen , Luigi Vanvitelli , Pietro da Cortona . In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late baroque appeared - Sicilian baroque . Light acts as a fundamentally important element of the baroque space, entering the church through the naves. ^[eight]

The quintessential Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture is considered the chapel of Cornaro in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria ( 1645 - 1652 ).

Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth. Spanish Baroque, or locally Churrigheresco (in honor of the architect Churrighera ), also spread to Latin America. Its most popular monument - St. James Cathedral , is also one of the most worshiped temples of Spain. In Latin America, baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is his most artsy version, and they call it ultra-baroque .

In relation to the architecture of France XVII century. sometimes use the term "baroque classicism". The Versailles Palace, along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace , the building of the French Academy in Paris and other works are ranked among such a classic-baroque style. They really have some features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in landscape gardening art, an example of which is Versailles Park .

Later, in the early 18th century, the French developed their own style - Rococo . It manifested itself not in the external design of buildings, but only in the interiors, as well as in the design of books, in clothing, furniture, and painting. The style was common throughout Europe and Russia.

In Belgium, the Grand Place ensemble in Brussels is an outstanding baroque monument. Baroque features a house of Rubens in Antwerp , built according to his own project of the artist.

In Russia, the background of the Baroque style appeared in the XVII century. However, according to the works of B.R. Wipper and the relatively recent studies of O. M. Ioannisyan, the so-called " Naryshkin baroque " is not baroque in the full sense of the word, like " Golitsyn baroque ", with the exception of the unconditional baroque church of the Sign in Dubrovitsy (1690 -1703). Therefore, it is more correct to say “Naryshkin style” ^[9] . In the XVIII century, the reign of Peter I was developed in St. Petersburg and the suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini - the so-called " Peter the Great Baroque " (more restrained), and reaches its peak in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the works of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli .

In Germany, the outstanding Baroque monument is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - I.G. Bühring , H.L. Munter) and the Summer Palace there ( G.V. von Knobelsdorf ).

The largest and most famous baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria).

In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Sarmatian baroque and Vilnius baroque styles became widespread, the largest representative - Jan Christoph Glaubitz . Among his famous projects are the rebuilt Church of the Ascension (Vilnius) , St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk) , etc.

Sculpture is an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini ( 1598 - 1680 ). Among his most famous sculptures are mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpine by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne , persecuted by the god of light Apollo , as well as the altar group Ecstasy of St. Theresa in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved from marble and like a robe of characters flying in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.

In Spain, in the Baroque era, wooden sculptures predominated, for great credibility they were made with glass eyes and even a crystal tear , real clothes were often worn on the statue. The leading master was Pedro de Mena, who worked in Granada and Malaga.

Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depiction. Symbols, metaphors , theater techniques, graphic images (lines of verses form a picture), saturation with rhetorical figures, antitheses , parallelisms , gradations , oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque- satirical attitude towards reality. Baroque literature is characterized by a desire for diversity, to summarize knowledge of the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedia, which sometimes turns into randomness and collecting curiosities, the desire to study being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). Baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of mortality and inconstancy, life-dreams ( F. de Quevedo , P. Calderon ). The famous play of Calderon " Life is a dream ." Such genres as gallant-heroic novel ( J. de Scoderie , M. de Scoderie ), real-life and satirical novel ( Fütrer , S. Sorel , P. Scarron ) are developing . Within the framework of the Baroque style, its varieties and directions are born: marinism (Italy), gongorism (culteranism) and conceptism (Spain), euphism and metaphysical school (England), precision literature (France), macaronism , that is, mixed Polish-Latin versification (Poland )

The actions of the novels are often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, the court gentlemen and ladies are portrayed as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which was called the pastoral ( Honore d'Urfe , "Astrea"). In poetry flourishes, the use of complex metaphors. Common forms are sonnet , rondo , concetti (a small poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals .

In the west, in the field of the novel, the outstanding representative is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel " Simplicissimus "), in the field of drama - P. Calderon (Spain). In poetry, W. Vuature (France), D. Marino (Italy), don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain), D. Donne (England) became famous. In France, "precision literature" flourished during this period. Then it was cultivated mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet , one of the aristocratic salons of Paris, the most fashionable and famous. In Spain, the Baroque trend in literature was called “ gongorism ” by the name of the most prominent representative (see above).

Baroque in Polish literature is represented by the poetry of the heroic and epic trends of Zbigniew Morsztyn , Vaclav Potocki , Vespasian Kokhovsky (the theme of the poetry of which is largely due to the eventful military biography of all three), the court (the so-called pasta style, popular in the late 17th century), Jan Andrzej Morsztyn philosophical Stanislav Heracliusz Lubomirsky ; in prose - mostly memoir literature (the most significant work is “Memoirs” by Jan Chrysostom Pasek ).

In Russia, S. Polotsky , F. Prokopovich belong to Baroque literature.

In German literature, Baroque traditions are still supported by members of the Blumenorden literary community. They gather in the summer for literary holidays in the Irrhein grove near Nuremberg . The society was organized in 1646 by Georg Philipp Harsdorffer with the goal of restoring and supporting the German language, which was badly damaged during the Thirty Years' War ^[10] .

Theoretically, Baroque poetry was developed in the treatises "Wit, or the Art of a Sophisticated Mind" by Balthasar Gracian (1648) and "Aristotle's Spyglass" by Emanuele Tesauro (1655).

Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and preceded the music of the era of classicism .

Representatives - Purcell , Lully , Vivaldi , Bach , Handel . The leading position in the genres of cantata , oratorio , opera . The opposition between the choir and the soloists , voices and instruments, a combination of large-scale forms, a tendency to synthesize art, while tending to separate music from the word (the emergence of instrumental genres) are characteristic.

Fashion of the Baroque era in France corresponds to the period of the reign of Louis XIV , the second half of the XVII century . This is the time of absolutism . At court, strict etiquette reigned, a complex ceremony. The costume was subject to etiquette. France was a trendsetter in Europe, so in other countries they quickly adopted French fashion. This was the century when a common fashion was established in Europe, and national characteristics faded into the background or preserved in a folk peasant costume. Before Peter I, some aristocrats also wore European costumes in Russia, although not everywhere.

The costume was characterized by stiffness, splendor, an abundance of jewelry. The ideal man was Louis XIV, the “King of the Sun”, a skilled rider, dancer, shooter. He wore high heels .

At first, when he was still a child (he ascended the throne at the age of 4), short jackets called brasiers , richly decorated with lace, became fashionable. Then pants, rengraves , similar to a skirt, wide, also richly decorated with lace that lasted a long time, became fashionable. Justocore later appeared (from French it can be translated: "exactly the body"). This is a type of caftan, knee-length, in this era it was worn buttoned, a belt was worn over it. Under the caftan they wore a camisole , without sleeves. The caftan and camisole can be compared with the later jacket and vest, which they will turn into in 200 years. The collar at the juxtokor was first turn-down, with semicircular ends extended downward. Later he was replaced by a frill . In addition to lace, there were many bows on the clothes, on the shoulders, on the sleeves and trousers - a whole series of bows. In the previous era, under Louis XIII , boots (over the knee boots ) were popular. This is a field type of shoe; they were usually worn by the military estate. But at that time there were frequent wars, and in boots they went everywhere, even at balls. They continued to be worn under Louis XIV, but only for their intended purpose - in the field, in military campaigns. In a civilian environment, shoes came first. Until 1670, they were decorated with buckles , then the buckles were replaced with bows. The elaborately decorated buckles were called agraph .

The women's dress was, unlike the dress of the previous period, not on the frame, but on a lining of a whalebone. It smoothly expanded to the bottom, wore a train at the back. The full female suit consisted of two skirts , a lower one ( fripon ) and a top one ( modest ). The first is light, the second is darker. The lower skirt was visible, the upper diverged to the sides of the lower part of the bodice . Drapes adorned the sides of the skirt. Draperies were also on the edge of the neckline . The neckline was wide, revealing shoulders. The waist is narrow, they wore a corset under the dress. If, under Louis XIII, women wore men's hats (they then borrowed many elements of the suit from men), now hairstyles, light scarves or caps are in fashion. In the 1660s, hairstyles of the Manchini and Sevigne were fashionable, named after the niece of Cardinal Mazarin , in whom the king was in love in his youth, and by the name of the famous writer. Later, a fountain hairstyle came into fashion (not to be confused with a fountain cap), named after one of the king's mistresses. This is a high hairstyle, of many curls . In the history of the costume, the hairstyle is also called kuafyura .

Men wore fluffy wigs , sticking high up and low over their shoulders. Wigs came into use even under Louis XIII, who was bald. Now they have become much more magnificent. Hats in the 1660s were wide-brimmed with high tops. At the end of the century they were replaced by a cocked hat, which remained popular in the next XVIII century .

Umbrellas are also in fashion, for women - couplings , fans . Without measure, cosmetics were used. Flies appeared, faces and wigs powdered for whiteness, and a black fly created a contrast. Wigs were so powdered that hats were often worn in hands. Both men and women wore canes. The bandage ( bandulier ), on which the swords were worn, became fashionable in the previous era. Even earlier, the swords were worn on a sword belt, a thin strap fastened to a waist belt. The bandage was formerly leather; now it was also made of moire. Materials of that time: wool , velvet , satin , brocade , taffeta , moire , camlot , cotton .

The baroque style is characterized by ostentatious luxury , although it retains such an important feature of the classical style as symmetry.

Wall painting (one of the types of monumental painting ) has been used in decorating European interiors since the early Christian times. In the Baroque era, it received the greatest distribution. The interiors used a lot of color and large, richly decorated details: a ceiling decorated with frescoes , marble walls and parts of decor , and gilding . Характерны были цветовые контрасты — например, мраморный пол, оформленный плитками в шахматном порядке. Обильные позолоченные украшения были характерной чертой данного стиля.

Мебель была предметом искусства, и предназначалась практически только для украшения интерьера. Стулья, диваны и кресла обивались дорогой, богато окрашенной тканью. Были широко распространены огромные кровати с балдахинами и струящимися вниз покрывалами, гигантские шкафы. Зеркала украшались скульптурами и лепниной с растительным узором . В качестве материала для мебели часто использовался южный орех и цейлонское чёрное дерево .

Стиль барокко не подходит для небольших помещений, так как массивная мебель и украшения занимают большой объём в пространстве. Воспроизведения атмосферы стиля барокко в настоящее время возможно с помощью стилизации и использования таких деталей барокко, как:

• статуэтки и вазы с растительным орнаментом;
• гобелены на стенах;
• зеркало в золочёной раме с лепниной;
• стулья с резными спинками и т. д.

Используемые детали должны сочетаться между собой в художественно- эстетическом плане.

• The baroque and rococo culture (англ.)
• Baroque // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron : in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
• Baroque Style Guide (неопр.) . Victoria and Albert Museum . Date of treatment July 16, 2007. Archived on August 19, 2007.