Throughout its history, the Tajik language was recorded in three writing systems: Arabic , Latin, and Cyrillic . Any of them can be called “Tajik script” (alifboi tokik, alifboi toçikī, اﻟﻔﺒﺎی تاجیکی).
The alphabets used have changed over time . The first script to write Tajik was Arabic, then, in the 1930-1940s, the Latin, later replaced by the current Cyrillic script [1] . The Bukhori dialect spoken by the Bukhara Jews was traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet , but in the 21st century it is usually written in Cyrillic.
Political context
As in many other post-Soviet countries , in Tajikistan, the choice of writing is closely related to politics. Officially in Tajikistan, the Tajik Cyrillic alphabet introduced in 1940 and reformed in 1998 is used for the Tajik language. This writing is supported by the current authorities of Tajikistan, who gained power after a seven-year civil war (1992-1997) , which was between the pro-Russian and neo-communist authorities and factions on the one hand (they were supported by Russia , Uzbekistan and other post-Soviet countries). (supported by Iran , Pakistan and Afghanistan ) and the liberal-democratic opposition (supported by the United States and European countries ) and factions from the other side. Cyrillic is used for the Tajik language in Uzbekistan , as well as in other countries of the post-Soviet space.
The Latin alphabet is now less common, but in 1926–1940 in the USSR, the Latin alphabet was used for the Tajik language, which was introduced for the other languages of the former USSR as part of the “romanization”. Today, in Latin, part of the Tajik youth prefers to correspond in the Internet, and the youth of the Tajik diaspora of Uzbekistan almost completely uses only the Latin alphabet in the Internet under the influence of the Uzbek language, which is now in the Latin alphabet. Also in Tajikistan itself there are many supporters of the re-Romanization of Tajik writing. They explain their opinion by the fact that it will be easier for foreigners and Persian-speaking residents of Iran and Afghanistan to read Tajik. Also, supporters of an alliance with the Western world come out for the Latin alphabet.
There are also many supporters of the return of Arabic-Persian writing, which was used for the Tajik (then this language was called Persian) language until 1925 from the 8th century . These are mainly Tajik nationalists and pan-Iranians, as well as supporters of Islamist views.
History
As a result of the influence of Islam in the region until the 1920s, the Tajik language was written in the Persian alphabet based on Arabic graphics. At this time, the Tajik was not considered a separate language - it was believed that this is the Persian dialect . After the Soviets came to power, the Persian script was first simplified (1923), and then the transition to Latinized writing in 1927 . The Latin alphabet was proposed from the desire to improve literacy and to distance the bulk of the illiterate then population from Islamic Central Asia . In addition, there were practical considerations behind this step: consonant Persian writing was not adapted for transmitting the vowel sounds of the Tajik language . In addition, Persian writing is more difficult to learn, since letters have several forms that are used depending on the position of the letter in the word .
The “decree on romanization” gave the Latin official status in April 1928 . The Tajik Latin script was developed on the basis of the work of Turkic-speaking scholars who planned to create a common Türkic alphabet , despite the fact that the Tajik is not Türkic. The campaign was successful: by the 1950s, almost universal literacy was achieved. After Latinization, the Tajik was first called a separate language .
In 1940, as part of the Russification of Central Asia, the Tajik language was translated into Cyrillic script. This alphabet was used until the end of the 1980s, when the collapse of the USSR caused the rise of the national movement in Tajikistan; Tajik was declared the state language identical with Persian (the name Forsu was added to the name , the local name of Persian). Under the new laws, a gradual return to the Persian alphabet was assumed.
Arabic writing returned to education and everyday life, although the ban on the Islamic Renaissance Party in 1993 slowed the adoption of this type of writing. In 1999, the word Force was removed from the law on the state language . For 2004, the de facto standard remained the Cyrillic alphabet , in 1996 an extremely small proportion of the population could read written in the Persian alphabet .
Varieties
Below are the letters of the various Tajik alphabets along with the readings. There is also a comparative table.
Cyrillic
The Tajik Cyrillic script replaced the Latin alphabet in the Tajik SSR in 1940 [2] [3] . In 1952, the alphabet presented below was reformed by adding the letters и and..
A a | B b | In the | Gg | D d | Her | Her | Well | H | And and | Th | K to | |
[ a ] | [ b ] | [ v ] | [ ɡ ] | [ d ] | [ e ] | [ jɔ ] | [ ʒ ] | [ z ] | [ i ] | [ j ] | [ k ] | |
L l | M m | N N | Oh oh | N p | P p | C s | T t | Y | F f | Xx | H h | |
[ l ] | [ m ] | [ n ] | [ ɔ ] | [ p ] | [ ɾ ] | [ s ] | [ t ] | [ u ] | [ f ] | [ χ ] | [ tʃ ] | |
W w | B b | Uh | Yu Yu | I am i | Ғ ғ | Ӣ ӣ | Қ қ | Ӯ ӯ | Ҳ ҳ | Ҷ ҷ | ||
[ ʃ ] | [ ʔ ] | [ e ] | [ ju ] | [ ja ] | [ ʁ ] | [ ˈI ] | [ q ] | [ ɵ ] | [ h ] | [ dʒ ] |
The borrowed words also contain the letters ц, и, and,, although they were officially excluded from the alphabet by the 1998 reform. In addition, the reform of 1998 changed the order of the letters: the modified letters now follow their unmodified pairs ( r , ғ ; k , қ, and the like) . The modern alphabet of the Tajik language is as follows: a b c d ғ g de f h i z i y c қ l m n o p c f t u ӯ f x h w h i e . In 2010, it was proposed to get rid of the letters e, e, u, i .
Letters not included in the Russian alphabet:
Description G with a stick And with macron K out U with macron X portable External Letter Ғ Ӣ Қ u with macron Kha with descender che with descender Phoneme [ ʁ ] [ i ] [ q ] [ ɵ ] [ h ] [ dʒ ]
In the period of the introduction of the Cyrillic alphabet, sometimes instead of Ғ there was a letter .
Persian alphabet
Until 1926-1929, the Tajik within the borders of the USSR was written in the Persian alphabet ( consonant ). Vowels in case they correspond to the classical Persian ā, ē, ī, ō, ū , are written respectively with the letters: ا ([ ɔ ]), ى ([ e ], [ i ]), و ([ Ɵ ], [ u ]). In other cases, vowels of their own letters do not have, and are written with optional accents .
ر | ذ | د | خ | ح | چ | ج | ث | ت | پ | ب | ا |
[ ɾ ] | [ z ] | [ d ] | [ χ ] | [ h ] | [ tʃ ] | [ dʒ ] | [ s ] | [ t ] | [ p ] | [ b ] | [ ɔ ] |
ق | ف | غ | ع | ظ | ط | ض | ص | ش | س | ژ | ز |
[ q ] | [ f ] | [ ʁ ] | [ ʔ ] | [ z ] | [ t ] | [ z ] | [ s ] | [ ʃ ] | [ s ] | [ ʒ ] | [ z ] |
ی | ه | و | ن | م | ل | گ | ک | ||||
[ j ] | [ h ] | [ v ] | [ n ] | [ m ] | [ l ] | [ ɡ ] | [ k ] |
Latin
Latinized writing was introduced after the overthrow of the monarchy in Russia in order to increase the proportion of literate people and distancing themselves from Islamic influence. In the first versions of the Latin alphabet of 1926-1929, there were only lowercase letters (see illustration at the top of the page). The Bukhara Jews used a slightly different version of the letter, in which there were unique letters for phonemes that were not found in other Tajik variants:, ə̧, ḩ .
A a | B b | C c | Ç ç | D d | E e | F f | G g | Ƣ ƣ | H h | I i | Ī ī |
[ a ] | [ b ] | [ tʃ ] | [ dʒ ] | [ d ] | [ e ] | [ f ] | [ ɡ ] | [ ʁ ] | [ h ] | [ i ] | [ / ˈI / ] |
J j / y y | K k | L l | M m | N n | O o | P p | Q q | R r | S s | Ş ş | T t |
[ j ] | [ k ] | [ l ] | [ m ] | [ n ] | [ ɔ ] | [ p ] | [ q ] | [ ɾ ] | [ s ] | [ ʃ ] | [ t ] |
U u | Ū ū | V v | X x | Z z | Ƶ ƶ | ' | |||||
[ u ] | [ ɵ ] | [ v ] | [ χ ] | [ z ] | [ ʒ ] | [ ʔ ] |
The symbol Ƣ is called gha and denotes the phoneme [ ɣ ]. This sign was included in the Common Turkic alphabet , which was used to record the majority of non-Slavic languages of the Soviet Union in the late 1930s. In the 21st century, the Latin alphabet is not used, despite the support of some groups .
Transliteration Standards
Below are the various Tajik language transliteration rules:
Cyrillic | ISO 9 (1995) 1 | KNAB (1981) 2 | WWS (1996) 3 | ALA-LC 4 | Allworth 5 | BGN / PCGN 6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A a [ a ] | a | a | a | a | a | a |
B b [ b ] | b | b | b | b | b | b |
In in [ v ] | v | v | v | v | v | v |
R g [ ɡ ] | g | g | g | g | g | g |
Ғ ғ [ ʁ ] | ƣ | gh | gh | ḡ | gh | gh |
D d [ d ] | d | d | d | d | d | d |
E e [ je, e ] | e | e, ye | e | e | ye‐, ‐e‐ | e |
Ё Ё [ jɔ ] | jo | yo | ë | ë | yo | yo |
Well [ ʒ ] | ž | zh | zh | ž | zh | zh |
W W [ z ] | z | z | z | z | z | z |
And and [ i ] | i | i | i | i | i | i |
Ӣ ӣ [ i ] | ī | ī | ī | ī | ī | í |
Nd st [ j ] | j | y | ĭ | j | y | y |
K to [ k ] | k | k | k | k | k | k |
Қ қ [ q ] | ķ | q | q | ķ | q | q |
L l [ l ] | l | l | l | l | l | l |
M m [ m ] | m | m | m | m | m | m |
N n [ n ] | n | n | n | n | n | n |
About o [ ɔ ] | o | o | o | o | o | o |
[ P ] | p | p | p | p | p | p |
P p [ r ] | r | r | r | r | r | r |
C c [ s ] | s | s | s | s | s | s |
T t [ t ] | t | t | t | t | t | t |
Do u [ u ] | u | u | u | u | u | u |
Ӯ ӯ [ ɵ ] | ū | ū | ū | ū | ū | ŭ |
F f [ f ] | f | f | f | f | f | f |
X x [ χ ] | h | kh | kh | x | kh | kh |
Ҳ ҳ [ h ] | ḩ | h | ḩ | x | h | h |
H h [ tʃ ] | c | ch | ch | č | ch | ch |
Ҷ ҷ [ dʒ ] | ç | j | j | č̦ | j | j |
Sh w [ ʃ ] | š | sh | sh | š | sh | sh |
B b [ ʔ ] | ' | ' | ' | ' | " | ' |
Uh [ e ] | è | è, e | ė | è | e | ė |
Yu Yu [ ju ] | ju | yu | i͡u | ju | yu | yu |
I am [ ja ] | ja | ya | i͡a | ja | ya | ya |
Notes:
- ISO 9 is an ISO 9 specification.
- KNAB - information from the toponymic base of the Institute of the Estonian language .
- WWS is a table from the book “World's Writing Systems” by Bernard Comrie ( eng. Bernard Comrie ) .
- ALA-LC is the standard of the Library of Congress and the American Library Association .
- From the book “Nationalities of the Soviet East. Publications and Writing Systems »Edward Oluort ( born Edward Allworth ) .
- BGN / PCGN is the standard of the and the .
Hebrew letter
Like the Persian alphabet, the Hebrew letter is consonant . They recorded the dialect of Bukhara Jews living in Bukhara and Samarkand . In the years 1929-1930, it was replaced by the Latinized alphabet. Since the 1940s, when the schools of the Bukhara Jews were closed, it was no longer used. Currently, Cyrillic is used to record the Bukhara-Hebrew language.
ג" | ג' | ג | גּ | בּ | ב | איֵ | איִ | אוּ | אוׄ | אָ | אַ |
[ dʒ ] | [ tʃ ] | [ ʁ ] | [ ɡ ] | [ b ] | [ v ] | [ e ] | [ i ] | [ u ] | [ ɵ ] | [ ɔ ] | [ a ] |
מ | ל | כּ ךּ | כ ך | י | ט | ח | ז | ז | ו | ה | ד |
[ m ] | [ l ] | [ k ] | [ χ ] | [ j ] | [ t ] | [ ħ ] | [ ʒ ] | [ z ] | [ v ] | [ h ] | [ d ] |
ת | שׁ | ר | ק | צ ץ | פּ ףּ | פ ף | ע | ס | נ ן | ||
[ t ] | [ ʃ ] | [ r ] | [ q ] | [ s ] | [ p ] | [ f ] | [ ʔ ] | [ s ] | [ n ] |
Sample text: דר מוקאבילי זולם איתיפאק נמאייד. מראם נאמה רוגרמי פירקהי יאש בוכארייאן. - Gift mubobili zulm ittifoқ namoed. Murom nome - by the prugi firm yosh bukhoriyon .
Tajik letters frequency
The first studies on the frequency of occurrence of letters in the Tajik language were undertaken in [4] and were associated with the definitions of the “best” layout of letters on a computer keyboard and the size of a representative sample to obtain reliable statistical results. But below are the results based on the statistical processing of the works of individual poets and writers; a general picture of the frequency of letters in classical and modern Tajik literature is formed [5] [6] .
Record samples
Example # 1
Cyrillic | Persian | Latin | Transfer |
---|---|---|---|
Tamomi Odamon ozod ba dunyo meoyand va az liҳozi manzilat ҳuқuқ bo ҳam barobarand. Kama Sobibi Akulu Vidonand, Boyad Nisbat Ba Yakdigar Barodarvor Munosabat Namoyand. | تمام دمان اد به دنیا میآیند و از لحاظ منزلت و وق با هم برابرند. مه احب عقل و وجدانند باید نسبت به یکدیگر براد الار مناسبت نمایند. | Tamomi odamon ozod ba dunjo meojand va az lihozi manzilatu huquq bo ham barobarand. Hama sohibi aqlu viçdonand, bojad nisbat ba jakdigar barodarvor munosabat namojand. | All people are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and must act towards each other in a spirit of brotherhood. |
Transliterated into Latin alphabet Arabic version:
tmạm ậdmạn ậzạd bh dnyạ my̱ ynd w ạz lḥạẓ mnzlt w ḥqwq bạ hm brạbrnd. hmh ṣḥb ʿql w wjdạnnd, bạyd nsbt bh ykdygr brạdrwạr mnạsbt nmạynd.
Cyrillic version transliterated into Latin :
Tamomi odamon ozod ba dunyo meoyand va az lihozi manzilatu huquq bo ham barobarand. Hama sohibi aqlu vijdonand, boyad nisbat ba yakdigar barodarvor munosabat namoyand.
Example No. 2
In the first variant of Persian, even those vowels that are usually not recorded are noted.
Cyrillic | Persian with vocalizations | Persian |
---|---|---|
Baniodam azoi yak paykarand, ki darling ofarinish zi yak gavҳarand. Chu uzve ba dard ovarad rӯzgor, digar uzvҳoro namonad қoror. Sadъ | بَنیآدَم اَعضایِ یَک پَیکَرَند دَر رینِش زِ یَک گَوهَرَند. و عُضوی به دَرد وَرَد روزگار دِگَر عُضوها را نَمانَد قَرار. سعدی | بنیآدم اعضای یک پیکرند د در رینش ی یک گوهرند. و عضوی به درد ورد روزگار دگر عضوها را نماند قرار. سعدی |
Murda Budam, Zinda Shudam; kettlebell boom, handa shudam. Davlati omadu man davlati poynda sudam. Mavlavӣ | مُرده بُدَم زِنده دَم گِریه بُدَم ، خَنده شُدَم. دَولَتِ عِشق آمَد و مَن دَولَتِ پایَنده شُدَم. مَولَوی | مرده بدم زنده شدم گریه بدم ، خنده شدم. دولت عشق آمد و من دولت پاینده دم. مولوی |
Comparison Chart
Table with a comparison of scripts for the Tajik language. The Latin alphabet is given according to the standard of 1929, the Cyrillic alphabet - according to the standard of 1998.
Cyrillic | Latin | Persian letter | MFA | Examples |
---|---|---|---|---|
A a | A a | َ, اَ | [ a ] | sang = سنگ = سَنگ |
B b | B ʙ | ب | [ b ] | barg = برگ = بَرگ |
In the | V v | و | [ v ] | Nomvar = نامور = ناموَر |
Gg | G g | گ | [ ɡ ] | sang = سنگ = سَنگ |
Ғ ғ | Ƣ ƣ | غ | [ ʁ ] | ғор = غار, Baғdod = بغداد = بَغداد |
D d | D d | د | [ d ] | modar = مادر = مادَر, Baғdod = بغداد = بَغداد |
Her | E e | ی | [ e ] | cher = شیر, meravam = میروم = میرَوَم |
Her | Jo jo | یا | [ jɔ ] | daro = دریا, fooch = آسیاب |
Well | Ƶ ƶ | ژ | [ ʒ ] | Zhola = اله, Everyday = دم = کَژدُم |
H | Z z | ﺽ, ﻅ, ﺫ, ﺯ | [ z ] | Baz = بعض, Nazar = نَظَر, Zaob = ذَهاب, Zamin = زَمیِن |
And and | I i | اِ, ِ | [ i ] | ihtiyor = اِختیار |
Ӣ ӣ | Ī ī | ی | [ / ˈI / ] | zeboӣ = زیبائی |
Th | J j | یْ, ی | [ j ] | May = مَی |
K to | K k | ک | [ k ] | kadom = کَدام |
Қ қ | Q q | ق | [ q ] | adam = دَم |
L l | L l | ل | [ l ] | lola = لاله |
M m | M m | م | [ m ] | murdagӣ = مُردَگیِ |
N N | N n | ن | [ n ] | non = نان |
Oh oh | O o | ا, آ | [ ɔ ] | orzu = رزو |
N p | P p | پ | [ p ] | panҷ = پَنج |
P p | R r | ر | [ ɾ ] | rank = رَنگ |
C s | S s | ﺙ, ﺹ, ﺱ | [ s ] | sar = سَر, subҳ = صُبح, surayo = رَیاَ |
T t | T t | ﺕ, ﻁ | [ t ] | toҷik = تاجیک, talab = طَلَب |
Y | U u | اُ, ُ | [ u ] | dud = دُود |
Ӯ ӯ | Ū ū | او, و | [ ɵ ] | hӯrdan = خوردَن, ӯ = اُو |
F f | F f | ف | [ f ] | furӯғ = فُروُغ |
Xx | X x | خ | [ χ ] | hondan = واندَن |
Ҳ ҳ | H h | ح | [ h ] | ҳofiz = حافِظ |
H h | C c | چ | [ tʃ ] | hӣ = چی |
Ҷ ҷ | Ç ç | ج | [ dʒ ] | ҷang = جَنگ |
W w | Ş ş | ش | [ ʃ ] | shab = شَب |
ъ | ' | ع | [ ʔ ] | taarif = تعریف |
Uh | E e | ای | [ e ] | hey = ای |
Yu Yu | Ju ju | یُ, یو | [ ju ] | Jun = اِیون |
I am i | Ja ja | یه, یَ | [ ja ] | yagonagӣ = یَگانَگی |
Notes
- Ly Schlyter, BN (2003) Sociolinguistic Changes in Transformed Central Asian Societies
- ↑ Keller, S. (2001) To Moscow, Not Mecca: The Soviet Campaign Against Islam in Central Asia, 1917—1941
- ↑ Dickens, M. (1988) Soviet Language Policy in Central Asia
- Ud Khudonazar, A. (2004) “The Other” in Berkeley Program, Post-Soviet Studies , November 1, 2004.
- ↑ Perry, JR (2005) A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar (Boston: Brill) p. 34
- ↑ Siddikzoda, S. "Tajik Language: Farsi or not Farsi?" In Media Insight Central Asia # 27 , August 2002
- ↑ UNHCHR - Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination - Summary Record of the 1659th Meeting: Tajikistan. 17 August 2004. CERD / C / SR.1659
- ↑ Library of Congress Country Study - Tajikistan
- ↑ Perry, JR (2005) A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar (Boston: Brill) p. 35
- Ly Schlyter, BN (2003) Sociolinguistic Changes in Transformed Central Asian Societies
- ↑ Perry, JR (1996) “Tajik literature: Seventy years is no longer the millennium” in World Literature Today , Vol. 70 Issue 3, p. 571
- ↑ Perry, JR (2005) A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar (Boston: Brill) p. 36
- ↑ The fate of the “Russian letters” in the Tajik alphabet will be decided
- ↑ Ido, S. (2005) Tajik (München: Lincom GmbH) p. eight
- ↑ Rzehak, L. (2001) Vom Persischen zum Tadschikischen. Sprachliches Handeln und Sprachplanung in Transoxanien zwischen Tradition, Moderne und Sowjetunion (1900-1956) (Wiesbaden: Reichert)
- ↑ IBM - International Components for Unicode - ICU Transform Demonstration
- ↑ A.Z. Rosenfeld. History and philology of the countries of the East. - Publishing house of Leningrad University, 1959. - p. 13.
- ↑ Elizabeth E. Bacon. Central Asians Under Russian Rule: A Study in Culture Change. - Cornell University Press, 1980. - p. 192. - ISBN 9780801492112 .
- ↑ Mukesh Kumar Sinha. The Persian World. - Pinnacle Technology, 2005. - ISBN 9781618201461 .
- It Gitelman, Zvi Y. A Century of Ambivalence: 1881 to the Present. - Indiana University Press, 2001. - P. 203. - ISBN 9780253214188 .
- ↑ ? (Neopr.) // Questions of linguistics. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1975. - p . 39 .
Literature
- ↑ Languages of the Russian Federation and neighboring states. - M .: "Science", 2005. - T. 3. - p. 49-63. - 606 s. - ISBN 5-02-011237-2 .
- ↑ On the translation of Tajik writing from the Latinized to the new Tajik alphabet based on the Russian graphics (Law of May 21, 1940) // Vedomosti of the Supreme Soviet of the Tajik SSR. - 1940. - № 5 .
- ↑ On the translation of Tajik writing from the Latinized to the new Tajik alphabet based on the Russian graphics (Law of May 21, 1940) // Collection of laws of the Tajik SSR, decrees and resolutions of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Tajik SSR, 1938-1958 . - 1959.
- ↑ Usmanov ZD, Soliev O. M. The problem of character layout on a computer keyboard - Dushanbe: Irfon, 2010, 104 p.
- ↑ Usmanov ZD, Kosimov A. А. Frequency of letters of Tajik literature - Reports of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan, 2015, vol.58, № 2, p. 112–115
- ↑ Косимов А. А. Басомади такроршавии ҳарфҳои адабиёти тоҷик — Маҷаллаи «Шафақ», Нашрияи Кумиҷроияи Ҳизби Халқии Демократии Тоҷикистон дар шаҳри Хуҷанд, 24.11.2015, № 21, с. 2
4. Goodman, ER (1956) «The Soviet Design for a World Language» in Russian Review 15 (2): 85-99.