Iceland

As the Icelandic sagas say, the island was discovered by the Vikings in the 60s of the 9th century and was named one of the discoverers, Phlox, Island - “ice country” (from is - “ice”, land - “country”) for the abundance of ice covering the island, while another Viking who landed on the opposite shore, called it Snjoland - "snow country" ^[4] . According to another hypothesis, the island was named “Gardarsholm” (“Gardara Island”), named after the Swedish Viking Gardar Swavarson , who is considered the first Scandinavian who lived in Iceland, but the island got the name Island, which characterizes the island’s natural conditions ^[5] .

Weather conditions

Contrary to the name and presence of glaciers , Iceland is by no means an arctic country. The climate of Iceland is marine , moderately cool, with strong winds, humid and changeable. The weather in Iceland is influenced by two sea ​​currents (warm North Atlantic , continuation of the Gulf Stream , and cold East Greenland ) and Arctic drifting ice , which accumulates on the northern and eastern coasts. July and August are the warmest months (the temperature in Reykjavik in July is up to +20 ° C). The average annual temperature on the southwestern coast in Reykjavik is +5 ° C, the average January temperature is −1 ° C, and July is +11 ° C. The corresponding indicators on the north coast (in Akureyri ) are +3 ° C, −2 ° C and +11 ° C. The average annual temperature does not fall below +4 ° C.

Coastal waters are free of ice throughout the year. The exception is situations associated with the removal of polar ice in the north and east. Due to the significant climate improvement since the beginning of the 1920s, the removal of polar ice to the shores of Iceland occurred only once in 1965 . The weather in this country changes dramatically, sometimes during the day, which depends on the passage of cyclones eastward through the Atlantic Ocean. A comic Icelandic proverb says: “If you don't like the weather, wait five minutes and it will get worse.” Dark time lasts from mid-November to the end of January. At this time, the height of the Sun at the time of the highest climax does not exceed several degrees (there is no polar night in Iceland). Throughout the summer in Iceland, the “ White Nights ”, June 21, the sun rises at 02:54 and sets at 00:02 the next day. December, unlike June, is the darkest month - daylight hours last no more than 5 hours.

The average annual rainfall is 1300-2000 mm on the south coast, 500-750 mm on the north and more than 3800 mm on the slopes of Vatnajokull and Mirdalsjokull open to the south.

Flora and Fauna

Only a quarter of the island’s area is covered with vegetation. Most plants are typically low-growing species typical of the Arctic.

Iceland's flora includes over 500 species of higher (vascular) plants (53 of which are grasses), about 600 species of mosses , 755 species of lichens , more than 2100 species of mushrooms and almost 1600 species of algae ^[6] . Conventional plants: armeria , dwarf willow , saxifrage , grate , grass field , heather , crowberry . Iceland is located in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean and the vascular plants that live on it are typical of northern Europe. In the 9th century, before being settled by man, Iceland was covered mainly with birch forests . Mention of the forest wealth of the island is preserved in the Byzantine chronicles. However, gradually almost all the forests were cut down, which led to severe erosion , and at present the landscape most similar to the tundra or generally devoid of plants is the most common. Desertification was also facilitated by the cooling and sheep breeding that began shortly after the settlement. Forest restoration programs exist, the promotion of which is highly dependent on funding. The goal is to cover five percent of the desert area with forest by 2040. Sheep breeding is still a big problem - traditionally freely grazing sheep are eaten by almost all seedlings . Therefore, new forests are forced to enclose.

The forest grows very slowly. Some afforestation is a gift from foreign project sponsors. The main trees for planting are tundra birch and mountain ash , which grow naturally. Sith spruce and its small planted in the southern and western parts of the country before the Second World War ; Siberian larch in the east has successfully taken root.

There are no reptiles and amphibians on the island. The only wild mammal is the Arctic fox . On the island, due to its variable climate, there is not a single mosquito . The most common seabird is the Atlantic puffin ^[7] .

Transport

Transport in Iceland is represented by buses , cars and trucks , ships and aircraft . Railways are completely absent.

In Iceland, the only vital transport is a car, since in Icelandic conditions it is the most convenient way to travel. Some Icelanders even have small aircraft for local use.

Cities of Iceland

The capital of the country is Reykjavik (202 thousand inhabitants - with suburbs), the seat of parliament and government, the financial, cultural and business center of Iceland. Other major cities: Koupavogur ( 33 045 people), Habnarfjordur ( 28 085 people), Akureyri ( 17 770 people), Husavik , Seydisfjordur , Akranes . The most important ports: Reykjavik, Akureyri, Grundarfjordur , Habnarfjordur .

Iceland was settled in the 9th century as a result of the unification of Norway under the rule of King Harald I. Many families in conflict with Harald were forced to flee in search of a new place to live.

As the population settled in Iceland, a state system was formed. In each area there was a ting (assembly, analogue of the veche ), on which judgment was adjudicated and disputes resolved; To solve the most important issues, representatives of the regions gathered at the beginning of summer for alting under the control of a special person - the law- governing agent . For the first time, the althing was convened in 930, and it is from this date that the era of democracy is reckoned.

In 1262, Iceland was forced to sign the so-called “ Old Treaty ” with Norway, according to which it recognized the supreme power of the Norwegian kings, and those, in turn, were obliged to send to the Icelanders annually several ships with timber, grain and other goods . The dynastic migration of power in the Scandinavian countries accordingly changed the subordination of Iceland.

On February 23, 1551, an uprising broke out in Iceland against Danish rule . The impetus for the uprising was the execution of the last Icelandic Catholic bishop, Ion Aranson and his sons. The rebellious Icelanders killed all the Danes on the island, but the punitive expedition of the Danish King Christian III was not difficult to restore order in a small country. In 1567, weapons were taken away from the Icelandic peasants, and they had to put up with foreign domination for a long time.

After the dissolution of the Danish-Norwegian Union in 1814, the island possessions of Norway, including Iceland, were left as part of Denmark. In 1845, the parliament was recreated as a legislative body. He received the Old Icelandic name " alting ."

As a result of more than a hundred years of peaceful struggle for independence , December 1, 1918, Iceland was declared an independent kingdom in a personal union with Denmark. During World War II, the German occupation of Denmark on April 9, 1940, broke Iceland's dependence on Denmark. In May 1940, Great Britain captured Iceland and in 1941 transferred the right to occupy the US islands. Since June 17, 1944, Iceland gained full independence and became a republic .

The territory of Iceland is divided into sisla ( sýslur ) and urban districts ( kaupstaður ), one of which is the capital, and sisla , in turn, is divided into cities and communes ( sveit ):

Sisla do not have local government, the central authority in sisla is represented by sislamans ( sýslumaður ).

The representative body of the capital is civil government ( borgarstjórn ), elected by the population; the executive body of the capital is the civic council ( borgarráð ), consisting of a civil elder ( borgarstjóri ) and civic advisers, elected by the civic council.

Representative bodies of cities - city governments ( bæjarstjórn ), elected by the population; the executive bodies of the cities are city councils ( bæjarráð ), consisting of the town headman ( bæjarstjóri ) and city councilors elected by the city councils.

The representative bodies of the communes are communal boards ( sveitarstjórn ), elected by the population; The executive bodies of the communes are communal councils ( sveitarráð ), consisting of the communal headman ( sveitarstjóri ) and communal councilors, elected by the communal boards.

Iceland is part of the Scandinavian system of law relating to the Romano-Germanic family . The civil law system is based on Danish law and does not fall fully under the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice .

The highest court is the Supreme Court ( Haestirettur ); judges are appointed for life by the Minister of Justice; first instance courts are eight county courts ( Héraðsdómar ).

In addition, there are special courts for maritime, labor and religious matters.

The head of state is the president ( Forseti ), elected in direct general elections for 4 years. On June 26, 2016, an independent candidate, a professor of history, Gwudni Johannesson , won the election ^[9] .

President Oulavur Ragnar Grimsson was elected on June 29, 1996 , on June 29, 2000 he remained for a second term due to the absence of other candidates; On June 26, 2004 he was elected for a third term, and in 2008 he automatically remained for a fourth term, again, due to the absence of other candidates; in 2012 he was elected for a fifth term. The executive body - the State Government ( Ríkisstjórn ) - consists of the Prime Minister ( Forsætisráðherrar ) and ministers ( ráðherrar ); currently consists of representatives of two parties - the “ Independence Party ” and the “ Progressive Party ”. The Prime Minister is approved by the President following parliamentary elections after consultation with party leaders in Altinga . Since January 11, 2017, Bjarni Benediktsson has been the Prime Minister . Iceland is a member of the Nordic Council (since 1952 ), the United Nations (since 1946 ), NATO (since 1949 ) and the EFTA (since 1970 ).

The legislative body is a unicameral parliament ( Alting , Alþingi ), which has been operating since 930 (63 members ( Þingmaður , Thingmans ; members are elected by direct vote for 4 years); from their composition they elect President Alting ( Forseti Alþingis ). Until 1991, Althing was bicameral Parliament may pass a vote of no confidence in the government.

The Constitution of the Republic of Iceland was adopted in 1920 . Later, significant changes were made to it - in 1944 and 1991 . June 17 (the day of adoption of the Constitution) is considered the Independence Day of Iceland. On November 27, 2010, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in Iceland.

Political Parties

A peculiarity of Iceland was that until 2006 the financing of political parties was not limited by law (except for the ban on receiving foreign donations, introduced in 1978) ^[10] . In 2006, a special law established state and municipal funding for parties that showed certain results in elections, a limit on membership fees, a ban on anonymous and foreign donations, and severely restricted parties from receiving business income (selling party items, lottery tickets, and paid events) ^[11] . Also, the 2006 law limited the expenses of one candidate for the election campaign and provided for mandatory accounting reports of both parties and candidates ^[12] . Moreover, the 2006 law does not apply to presidential candidates ^[10] .

Right

• “ Independence Party ” ( Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn , PN) - conservative , Eurosceptic;
• “ Right-Green People's Party ” ( Hægri Grænir flokkur fólksins ) - right libertarian , Eurosceptic.

Centrist

• “ Progressive Party ” ( Framsóknarflokkurinn , PP) - liberal-agrarian ;
• " Renaissance " ( Viðreisn ) - right-liberal ecological;
• “ Dawn is an organization of justice, honesty and democracy ” ( Dögun - stjórnmálasamtök um réttlæti, sanngirni og lýðræði ) is populist.

Center-Left

• “ Social Democratic Alliance ” ( Samfylkingin , SDA) - Social Democratic ;
• " Bright future " ( Isl. Björt framtíð ) - left-liberal, is in alliance with the "anarcho-surreal" "Best Party" ( Besti flokkurinn ) Jon Gnarr .

Left

• Icelandic Pirate Party ( Píratar , PPI) - pirate party ;
• Left-green movement ( Vinstrihreyfingin - grænt framboð , LZD) - eco-socialist;
• Rainbow ( Regnboginn ) - ecosocialist, Eurosceptic;
• Народный фронт Исландии ( Alþýðufylkingin ) — леворадикальная .

Профсоюзы

Крупнейший профцентр — «Федерация исландских профсоюзов» ( Alþýðusamband Íslands ), объединяющая 104,5 тысяч человек.

Ранее Исландия была практически страной монокультурного хозяйства — основным источником доходов были рыболовство и обработка рыбы (32 % промышленности в 2001 году).

Однако в последние годы происходит интенсивная диверсификация промышленности на основе дешёвой возобновляемой энергии (в основном, геотермальные источники, формирующие гидроэнергетику страны).

Правительство Исландии объявило о масштабной программе по строительству алюминиевых заводов.

Также активно развиваются биотехнологии , туризм , банковский бизнес, информационные технологии .

По структуре занятости Исландия относится к промышленно развитым странам: в сельском хозяйстве занято 7,8 %, в промышленности — 22,6 %, а в сфере услуг — 69,6 % трудоспособного населения.

В 2007 году ООН признала Исландию лучшей страной для жизни в мире.

Мировой финансовый кризис 2008 года отразился и на Исландии. Курс исландской кроны упал на 60 %, очень сильно упал фондовый рынок . В банковской системе страны начались серьёзные проблемы . Страна фактически оказалась на грани банкротства. За 2009 год реальный показатель ВВП страны сократился на 6,8 %, что было обусловлено падением общего числа инвестиций в такие сектора экономики, как строительство и сфера услуг, на 50 %. Кризис серьёзно повлиял и на ситуацию на рынке труда, так как уровень безработицы достиг рекордных 9,4 %. По состоянию на 2016 год, средний размер оплаты труда в Исландии составляет 617000 kr ^[13] ( € 4551.18, брутто) и 428000 kr ^[14] (€3156.78, нетто) в месяц.

Регулярных вооружённых сил Исландия не имеет, поэтому государственные расходы на оборону символические — 0,1 % бюджета республики в 2005 году ^[15] . Из военизированных структур имеется береговая охрана (БОХР). Иные вооружённые формирования в мирное время отсутствуют.

Защиту страны осуществляет НАТО . Исландия одной из первых ( 4 апреля 1949 года ) вступила в НАТО, несмотря на массовые протесты . В городе Кеблавик неподалёку от столицы располагалась авиабаза Североатлантического альянса (с 30 сентября 2006 года база прекратила функционирование, но инфраструктура осталась).

По данным журнала « Forbes », Исландия занимает 1-е место в мире по миролюбивости (2011 год).

Население Исландии составляет более 350 тысяч жителей (на 2018 год). Согласно данным Всемирного банка и исландской статистики, уровень рождаемости в Исландии в 2017 году упал до исторического минимума, однако рождаемость на острове по-прежнему на 30-40 % выше числа смертей. Прирост населения обеспечивают также иммигранты, которых на территории государства становится всё больше — 11 % от общей численности населения в 2017 году ^[16] .

Из общего числа жителей 16 % заняты в сельском хозяйстве, 21 % — в рыболовстве, 18 % — в промышленности и ремёслах, 25 % — в торговле и транспорте, 10 % — в прочих областях.

Migration

Уровень миграции из страны также очень мал; даже несмотря на то, что многие исландцы уезжают учиться в такие страны, как Великобритания , Норвегия и другие, они почти всегда возвращаются назад, на родину. Тем не менее, в Исландии очень высок уровень внутренней миграции . Многие исландцы переезжают из маленьких рыбацких деревушек и крошечных городков в Рейкьявик и его окрестности в надежде на лучшую работу и жильё. Правительство пытается бороться с этим, поскольку так забрасываются многие деревни и даже города, существовавшие в течение долгих лет. В последнее время эта тенденция приостановилась. Самая большая диаспора исландцев находится в Канаде — около 100 тысяч человек, больше всего — в Манитобе и Британской Колумбии . В США проживает около 50 тысяч человек исландского происхождения.

Основная конфессия Исландии — евангелистская лютеранская церковь Исландии, которая стала официальной в 1540 году (тогда Исландия принадлежала Дании ), её исповедуют 69,9 % от всего населения страны. 3,8 % населения исповедует католицизм , 2,9 % относят себя к прихожанам Свободной церкви Рейкьявика , 2 % — к , 1,1 % — к сторонникам исландскому язычеству , 1 % — к иным лютеранским конгрегациям, 4 % — к иным конфессиям. 6,1 % не относят себя ни к какой религии , 9,2 % не ответили ^[17] .

Результаты опроса, опубликованного в начале 2016 года показывают, что меньше половины исландцев считают себя религиозными и более 40 % молодых людей считают себя атеистами. Религия более распространена за пределами Рейкьявика: 56,2 % опрошенных жителей столицы идентифицировали себя как христиане, на остальных же территориях страны доля христиан — 77-90 %. Также опрос показал разницу в религиозности поколений: ни один из опрошенных молодых людей (до 25 лет) не верит в библейскую историю создания Земли . ^[18] .

Holidays

В Исландии 24 декабря отмечается Йоль — языческий праздник середины зимы . Он длится 12 ночей, начиная с ночи перед днём зимнего солнцестояния . Традиции празднования сходны с рождественскими . В дом приносятся хвойные деревца , готовятся подарки и конкурсы, ветки вечнозелёных деревьев украшаются игрушками и гирляндами . Под йольское дерево складывают подарки ^[19] .

17 июня — День независимости Исландии (день провозглашения республики). В этот день проводятся парады, а одним из персонажей празднеств является Повелительница горы , олицетворяющая собой образ Исландии.

Sport

С 1935 года в Исландии проводится 50-километровый лыжный марафон , в 2014 году включённый в федерацию Worldloppet .

В 2016 году сборная Исландии по футболу участвовала в Чемпионате Европы по футболу 2016 во Франции. В 1/8 исландцы переиграли сборную Англии по футболу со счётом 2:1 и добились лучшего результата за всю историю исландского футбола. В четвертьфинале сборная Исландии проиграла хозяевам — сборной Франции — со счётом 5:2.

В 2018 году сборная Исландии приняла участие в Чемпионате Мира по футболу 2018 в России, где сыграла вничью со сборной Аргентины .

Literature

Исландская культура уходит корнями в древнескандинавские традиции . Наиболее известными классическими литературными произведениями считаются саги — прозаические эпосы , написанные в период заселения острова. Наиболее известной является Старшая Эдда (1222—1225). Перевод Библии на исландский язык был опубликован в XIV веке. Вероятно, самый известный исландский писатель последнего времени — романист и эссеист Халлдор Кильян Лакснесс , получивший Нобелевскую премию по литературе в 1955 году. Из современных писателей весьма выделяется Хадльгримюр Хельгасон , автор романов «Хелла» (1990) и «101 Рейкьявик» (1996). Помимо Хельгасона, примечательным писателем можно назвать Эйнара Карасона и его произведение «Шторм». Книга была номинирована на премию Северного совета, Исландскую премию по литературе и переведена на несколько языков, в том числе на русский.

Music

Национальные мелодии ( исл. tvisöngur ) известны с 1001 года. Наиболее известным композитором XIX века является Свейнбьёрн Свейнбьёрнссон (1847—1927), автор национального гимна Исландии . Наиболее известные композиторы XX века — Йоун Лейфс (1899—1968) и Пауль Исольфссон (1897—1974).

The Reykjavik Orchestra was organized in 1925, and the Icelandic Opera in 1980.

Since 1990, Reykjavik became the venue for the major annual jazz festival " Reykjavik Jazz Festival " ^[20] .

At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries, such performers as the singer Björk , the post-rock band Sigur Rós , instrumentalist Oulavur Arnalds , Múm , pop singer Johanna , the band GusGus and several others became famous. Vocalist Eirikur Hoykson , well-known in the world of heavy music, has represented Iceland three times at the Eurovision Song Contest (in 1986, 1991 and 2007).

In 2019, Iceland was represented by Iceland at the Eurovision Song Contest ^[21] , taking tenth place, impressing the audience with its non-standard performance and initiating the incident with Palestinian flags during the announcement of the vote ^{[22] [23]} .

Movies

Icelandic cinema is distinguished by its approach to reflecting reality. Among the directors are Fridrik Thor Friedrichsson and his work Children of Nature , Balthazar Kormakur ( 101 Reykjavik , White Night Wedding ), Arnie Olafur Asgeyrsson , Dagur Kari ( Noah is the White Crow ). Also shots from Iceland were shown in the film “ The Incredible Life of Walter Mitty ”.

• Dramas: “Life in sight” (2014).
• Thriller: Unburied Bones (2014). Joint film of the USA and Iceland “ ” (2001)
• Series: “Trap / Trap” (2015), “Rock” (2009), “Lava Field” (2014) - series about the investigator Helge.

Photography

Some of the most famous photographers are Ragnar Axelsson ^[24] , Ari Magg ^[25] and Laurus Sigurdarson ^{[26] [27]} .

National Cuisine

The national dish in Iceland, Haukarl, is shark jerky ^[28] .

Media

About 400 books and magazines are published in Iceland annually. The first newspaper appeared in 1848. The country publishes 35 newspapers, most of which are weekly. Of the five daily newspapers, Morgunblaðið , the press organ of the Independence Party, has the largest circulation. Very popular are DV and Alpudibladet .

Until recently ^{[ what? ] of} time there was only one radio station (in Reykjavik) and three relay stations. Now ^{[ when? ]} there are 3 stations in the CB band, 70 in the FM band (including repeaters) and one HF. There are radios in every home (according to statistics ^{[ which one? ]} - 260,000).

Broadcasting in Iceland began work in 1966. There are 14 television stations and 156 repeaters, as well as a television station at the American base in Keflavik .

Iceland's Internet domain is .is. The country has about 20 Internet providers and more than 200 thousand active Internet users.

In 2011, Freedom House ranked Icelandic media as one of the freest in the world ^[29] .