Tips

The word "advice" is of Church Slavonic origin and is first found in the translation of the Psalms : "Neither is it an ideal for the advice of the wicked" ( Psalm 1: 1 ).

In Russia of the 18th century, the Supreme Privy Council (1726-1730), the Imperial Council (1762) and the Council at the Supreme Court (1768-1801) existed. In Russia of the XIX century, the Permanent Council (1801-1810), the Military Council of the Russian Empire (1812-1918) and the State Council of the Russian Empire (1810-1917) were established under the emperor. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Council of Ministers of the Russian Empire appeared (1905-1917). In the post-Soviet period, the term council was also preserved in the names of some state institutions ( Federation Council ).

After the establishment of Soviet power outside Russia, analogues of the Supreme Council were established: the Verkhovna Rada in Ukraine, Varkhony Savet in Belarus, Ali Soveti in Azerbaijan, Oliy Soveti in Uzbekistan, Shroi Oliya (cf. Shura-i-Ulema ) in Tajikistan, Zhokary Kesesі ( cf. Kenasa ) in Kazakhstan, the Jogorku Kenesh in Kyrgyzstan, Aukščiausioji Taryba in Lithuania, Augstākā padome in Latvia, Ülemnõukogu in Estonia, Sovietul Suprem in Moldova, the State Council ( Staatsrat ) in the GDR . In Poland, the Seim was an analogue of the council.

The word Council also translates the English Council ( UN Security Council ), French Conseil ( Council of Five Hundred ) and Italian Consiglio ( Council of Ministers of Italy , cf. Council ). In Arabic, the word “council” has two equivalents: the Majlis ( Arabic: مجلس : Council of the Revolutionary Command of Iraq ) and the Shura ( Arabic: .ور в, in Afghanistan the supporters of Soviet power were called Shuravi ).

On March 8, 1905, the first Russian Council of Workers' Deputies was created in the city of Alapaevsk . However, he acted within the enterprise. The Council of Commissioners is better known, organized on May 15, 1905 by striking workers of textile and weaving enterprises in Ivanovo-Voznesensk (now Ivanovo ) and operating within the whole city ^{[5] [6] [7]} . It was the strike committee itself , which controlled the strike struggle following the example of factory councils (as well as workers' councils ) in Europe. For more details, see Ivanovo-Voznesensky Strikes , Ivanovo-Voznesensky City Council of Workers' Deputies .

In the fall of 1905, the Soviets of workers, soldiers, railroads, Cossacks, sailors, laborers and peasants' deputies were organized by workers in many cities and towns. Deputies were elected according to the production principle — from collectives of workers' factories, factories, at rural gatherings, etc. Arising as organs to lead the uprising, with the victory of the uprising over the local government, they began to act as revolutionary power. The propagandists of the idea of ​​“power of the Soviets” as the highest form of democracy were initially Parvus and L. D. Trotsky (the actual leaders of the St. Petersburg Council ), the Mensheviks , Socialist-Revolutionaries and Maximalists . The Bolsheviks considered them embryonic, fragmented, spontaneous, and therefore powerless organs of the revolution. Later, V. I. Lenin put forward the idea of ​​the Soviets as a form of political organization of workers in the struggle for the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat.

These bodies were created exclusively by the revolutionary layers of the population, they were created outside all laws and norms in a completely revolutionary way, as a product of original folk art, as a manifestation of the initiative of a people who got rid of or are getting rid of old police fetters. These were, finally, the authorities, in spite of all their rudimentality, spontaneity, lack of form, vagueness in composition and functioning.

- Lenin "The victory of the Cadets and the tasks of the workers' party." 1906

During the first Russian revolution, 62 Soviets of workers', soldiers' and peasants' deputies emerged, 47 of which were headed by or were under their influence, and 10 were headed by the Mensheviks. ^[8] During the December uprising in Moscow , led by the Bolsheviks, the Moscow Soviet of Workers 'Deputies and the Councils of the outskirts led the workers' uprising, becoming revolutionary authorities. The Soviets were liquidated by the government after the defeat of the Revolution of 1905-1907 , the deputies were persecuted.

Immediately after the uprising in Petrograd, two Petrograd Soviets were elected - workers' and soldiers' deputies, which on March 1 joined the Petrograd Soviet of workers and soldiers' deputies ^[9] , who exercised power in the capital along with the Provisional Government and in spite of it, and in addition, tried to take the authority of the All-Russian authority ^[10] .

Following this, the Soviets began to form throughout the country, becoming organs of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the poorest peasantry. Executive committees of the Soviets form a working militia. As a rule, unified Soviets of workers 'and soldiers' deputies were created. The Soviets of peasant deputies (provincial, district, volost) arose. At the front, the functions of the Soviets were performed by soldiers' committees (regimental, division, corps, army, front, and others). At the All-Russian meeting of Soviets in March-April 1917, the territorial system of Soviets was determined: regional, provincial, district, district associations (congresses) and All-Russian associations (congresses, meetings). In March 1917, in the cities and provinces, there were about 600 Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies.

At this stage in the development of Soviet power, the unearned classes (bourgeoisie, intelligentsia , employees, students) in practice did not have the opportunity to exercise suffrage, although formally they were not deprived of it, since elections to the soviets were held not according to the territorial, but according to the production principle ^{[1 ]} .

Dual Power

In March 1917, the regime of dual power took shape in Petrograd: on the one hand, the power of the State Duma and the Provisional Government, on the other - the power of the Petrosoviet . Initially, the leadership of the Petrosoviet, the majority of which were Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries , had no intention of creating, in the person of the Soviets, an alternative structure of state power. As a counterweight to the Provisional Government, the Soviets became spontaneous. V.I. Lenin, having discerned in the Soviet system of power an instrument with which the complete destruction of the bourgeois state is possible, by virtue of his pragmatism, agreed to follow the spontaneous creativity of the masses, although he had previously opposed this form of power. In the April Theses, he put forward the idea of ​​transferring all power to the Soviets and the slogan: “ All power to the Soviets! ”, Characterizing the system of Soviets as a new type of state. Lenin is often charged that after the transfer of state power to the soviets, the next stage in the struggle for power for his party will be the seizure and Bolshevization of the soviets themselves ^[11] . But a careful reading of Lenin's works clearly indicates that seeing the Soviets as an instrument of the working people’s power (first of all, factory workers as the most organized work already social in nature), Lenin built the party as the vanguard of the working class, as the intelligentsia, indicating the direction of the class struggle for the interests of workers .

However, the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, leaders in most of the Soviets, regarded Lenin's slogan as extremist, being confident in the need for a coalition with the bourgeoisie and the prematureness of socialist transformations in Russia . Later, the Soviet historical school period from February to July was characterized as "the possibility of a peaceful transition of power to the Soviets," because the bourgeoisie had no real power: even the bourgeois revolution was carried out by the working people under the leadership of the anarchists and Socialist-Revolutionaries. The allies of the Bolsheviks of that time — the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks — considered the Soviets merely a way to support the new government “from below”, as temporary public organizations with the goal of “voluntarily transferring power to the bourgeoisie” ^[12] .

In the army and navy, the Provisional Government relied on the traditional command, the Petrosoviet on the soldier and sailor committees. The power of the State Duma in the regions was based on traditional zemstvos and city councils, and the Petrosoviet on the local councils. The real power of the Petrosoviet was actually concentrated in the hands of its Executive Committee, a non-elective body that consisted entirely of radical intelligentsia representing various socialist parties. The historian Richard Pipes characterized the Petrosoviet as a “layered structure”: “on top is the body speaking on behalf of the Council, composed of socialist intellectuals, formed in the Executive Committee, below is an uncontrolled rural gathering.”

During March 1917, the Executive Committee of the Petrosoviet formed a number of commissions parallel to the respective ministries of the Provisional Government, and in fact turned into a shadow government . Commissions were formed on railways, mail and telegraph, food, finance, commissioners were appointed to the headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief and the headquarters of the Commanders of the fronts and fleets. The Executive Committee also, at its discretion, was engaged in legislative activity, in particular, by issuing a decree on an eight-hour working day.

The main mechanism of the "dual power" regime was the Contact Commission of the Executive Committee of the Petrosoviet, formed on {{| |||}} on March 8 (21), 1917 ^[13] , and actually exercised control of the Soviets over the Provisional Government "in order to inform the Council of the intentions and actions of the Provisional Government “Awareness of the latter about the demands of the revolutionary people, impact on the government to meet these demands and continuous monitoring of their implementation.” The Contact Commission included Chkheidze N.S. , Skobelev M.I. , Steklov Yu.M. , Sukhanov N.N. and Filippovsky V.N.

In the spring of 1917, on the initiative of the All-Russian Conference of Soviets (March 29 (April 11) - April 3 (16)), preparations began for the convening of the supreme body of power of the Soviets - the unstable Congress of Soviets . On June 3-24, the First All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies was held in Petrograd. During 1917, two such congresses were held; in their absence, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was composed of 320 people (of which 123 were the Mensheviks , 119 Social Revolutionaries , 58 Bolsheviks , 13 united Social Democrats, 7 representatives of other parties). Between the February Revolution and the I Congress of Soviets, which formed the first composition of the CEC in the summer of 1917, the highest authority was actually the Executive Committee of the Petrosoviet. Even after the appearance of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Executive Committee of the Petrosoviet did not abandon attempts to intervene in the solution of all-Russian affairs, thus competing with the All-Russian Central Executive Committee ^[10] .

By May 1917, up to 50 thousand soldier and sailor committees of various levels were formed, which consisted of up to 300 thousand people. The Central Committee of the Baltic Fleet (Central Balt), headed by P.E. Dybenko, becomes a significant revolutionary force.

In Russian industry, there was a spontaneous formation of factory committees that put forward the slogan of workers' control over production. By June 1917, the Central Council of Factory Committees was formed; by October 1917 such committees were formed in 50 major industrial centers.

Under the conditions of Russia with its centuries-old estate traditions, the Soviets were divided into workers and soldiers sections, until 1918 the Congresses of Peasant Deputies were held separately from the Congresses of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies. Representation rates were not equal; Thus, during the election of the first composition of the Petrosoviet in 1917, the norms were adopted: one delegate from a thousand workers and one from a company of soldiers (that is, from about a hundred people).

In the elections of the First Congress of Soviets of Peasant Deputies, the Organizing Committee for convening the congress established the norm: one delegate from 150 thousand peasants, at the same time at the First Congress of Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies the norm was one delegate from 25 thousand people. In fact, the representation was skewed, first of all, in favor of the soldiers, and in the second - in favor of the workers. The norms of representation of large workers (one delegate from a thousand workers) and small enterprises (one delegate from each enterprise) also differed; as a result, in the first members of the Petrosoviet in 1917, workers at large factories, representing 87% of all workers, sent as many delegates as workers of small factories ^[14] .

On the whole, the system of Soviets in 1917 was characterized by considerable chaos: in addition to Soviets of workers 'and soldiers' deputies and Soviets of peasant deputies, local councils of military deputies, councils of sailor and officer deputies, councils of landless peasants, councils of Cossack deputies, councils of student deputies could also exist ^[15] , Councils of workers' elders, Councils of deputies of the labor intelligentsia, etc. According to researcher Boris Kolonitsky , "Councils of pastoral deputies" were organized in the Baltic states ^[16] ; other sources ^{[ what? ]} , предпринимались даже безуспешные попытки организовать «Совет дворянских депутатов». Нормы представительства при выборах на местах советов уровня волости также назначались хаотично: в Роминской волости избиралось по 3-10 депутатов от селения, в Подбужской — 3 депутата от 1000 избирателей, в Будской — 1 от 200, в Яровщинской — по 5 от селения, Пупповской — по 1 депутату от 10 дворов ^[17] ; как видно, не были унифицированы не только нормы представительства, но даже единицы измерения — в одних случаях это был двор, в других определённое количество жителей, в третьих — деревни в целом. Нормы представительства были унифицированы только большевистской конституцией 1918 года. При всей хаотичности власти Советов общим местом было то, что в Советах не был представлен буржуазный класс («цензовые элементы», «цензовая буржуазия»), составлявший большинство в Госдуме III созыва ( см. Избирательная система 1907 года ). Следствием этого стало резкое преобладание в Советах представителей социалистов и анархистов.

Comparing the degree of representativeness of the Provisional Government and the Soviets, the historian Alexander Rabinovich wrote that the latter were more representative. In support of this conclusion, the historian made the following arguments: deputies of the Fourth Duma were elected according to the rules , which, in the opinion of Rabinovich, excluded the participation of the majority of the population in the elections; The Soviets were “grassroots democratic organizations” that sprang up in cities and rural areas throughout the country; in May, the First All-Russian Congress of Peasants 'Deputies was convened in the capital, and in June the First All-Russian Congress of Workers' and Soldiers 'Deputies, which elected permanent bodies - the Central Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers 'Deputies (CEC) and the Executive Committee of the All-Russian Council of Peasants' Deputies (IWSCD) ), "Which together were more representative and thanks to the support of workers, peasants and especially soldiers, were potentially stronger than the Provisional Government" ^[18] .

July Uprising

After the defeat of the July uprising led by the Bolsheviks ^[19] , dual power ended and power passed into the hands of the Second Coalition Government, the Bolsheviks quickly lost popularity, their influence in the councils declined sharply. In view of this, the Sixth Congress of the RSDLP (b) removed the slogan “All power to the Soviets!”, Aiming the workers at preparing an armed insurrection.

After the Kornilov Speech

During the days of Kornilov’s speech, in order to defend the revolution, armed groups — the Red Guard — were organized through the Soviets that fell under the influence of the Bolsheviks. After the suppression of Kornilov’s speech, the popularity of the Bolsheviks increased sharply. The re-election in September gave the majority in many Soviets to the Bolsheviks. RSDLP (b) once again put forward the slogan "All power to the Soviets!" Under the Soviets, Military Revolutionary Committees were created.

On the eve of the October Revolution , 1,429 Soviets of workers', soldiers' and peasants' deputies acted. Among them, 706 were the united Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies, 235 were Soviets of Workers ', Soldiers' and Peasants 'Deputies, 33 - Soviets of Soldiers' Deputies. All these 974 Councils constituted an all-Russian organization led by the Central Executive Committee of the Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies of the first convocation. The remaining 455 were peasant Soviets and were united by the Executive Committee of the Council of Peasant Deputies elected at the I All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Peasant Deputies after the October armed uprising .

After the victory of the armed uprising , on October 25 ( November 7 ), 1917, the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies opened in Petrograd, by the decision of which the power in the country passed to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.

According to A. A. Cherven-Vodali , the Russian cadet politician and Minister of the Interior in the All-Russian Government A. V. Kolchak , “The Soviets were based on forcibly imposing the will of a small part of the entire population” ^[20] .

The Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies performed the functions of power in the city, and the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies - in the countryside. The supreme authority in the country between Congresses of Soviets was the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets (VTsIK). The interim worker and peasant Government was the Council of People's Commissars (SNK), elected by the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets. All three state bodies had legislative powers. On November 24, 1917, the Council of People's Commissars adopted the Decree on the Right to Revoke, introducing the right of voters to recall their deputies.

In the fall of 1917, most of the peasant Soviets were under the influence of the Socialist Revolutionaries, many Social Revolutionaries were delegated to the Extraordinary All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Peasant Deputies November 10 (23) - November 25 ( December 8 ) and the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Peasant Deputies November 26 ( December 9 ) - 10 ( December 23) . The Left Social Revolutionaries supported the Bolsheviks, and the Congress recognized all the decrees of Soviet power and the need to unite the Soviets of workers, soldiers and peasants' deputies. The merger of the Central Executive Committees of the Soviets of Peasant Deputies and the Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies, and then the merger in January 1918 of the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Peasant Deputies with the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies. The III All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies became an alternative to the dispersed Constituent Assembly . The Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People was approved, declaring Russia the Republic of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies. By March 1918, the process of unifying the Soviets on the ground was basically completed. A single system of Soviets arose. Local councils independently resolved local issues, but had to act in accordance with the normative acts of central bodies and higher councils. On January 15 (28), 1918, a Decree was adopted on the creation of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army and the Soviets were called the Soviets of Workers, Peasants and Red Army Deputies (the word "soldier" in Soviet Russia was abandoned as if it was a "counterrevolutionary" ^[1] ) .

On July 10, 1918, the Fifth All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the first Constitution of the RSFSR , which determined the construction of Soviet power. The Bolshevik constitution unified the system of Soviets, which had previously been chaotically organized due to the spontaneity of its formation.

At the highest level, the Soviets were represented by the All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers, Peasants, Red Army and Cossack Deputies - the highest authority in the RSFSR. Thus, the Congresses of Soviets of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies finally united with the Congresses of Soviets of Peasant Deputies, which were held separately in 1917.

At the same time, the elections to the highest authority themselves remained, as in the Russian Empire , indirect and unequal ( discriminatory ) ^[21] : the corps of its deputies was composed of representatives of city councils “at the rate of 1 deputy for 25,000 voters, and representatives of provincial Congresses of Soviets, for 1 deputy per 125,000 inhabitants ” ^[22] . Thus, the urban proletariat gained an advantage over the rural population, having the right to vote. This was done specifically in the interests of the ruling party of the Bolsheviks, since village voters were less inclined to Bolshevism than city voters ^[10] . On the other hand, such unequal representation arose in February - March 1917.

The All-Russian Congress was convened by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets (All -Russian Central Executive Committee ) at least twice a year. The All-Russian Congress of Soviets elected its permanent body - the All - Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets, consisting of no more than 200 people, which was responsible to it and was the highest legislative, administrative and controlling body in the period between Congresses. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets formed an accountable government - the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR .

The separation of powers into legislative and executive Constitution was not provided for: Art. 41 obligated the Council of People's Commissars to submit for “consideration and approval” of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee decisions “having major general political significance” with the right to “directly” carry out activities requiring “urgent implementation”. On the other hand, Art. 33 authorized the All-Russian Central Executive Committee to consider the “draft decrees and other proposals” of the Council of People's Commissars and individual departments, and issue its own decrees.

In the Soviet republics (Ukraine, Belarus, etc.), the system of Soviets was headed by Republican congresses of Soviets, which elected the Central Executive Committee of the republics.

Local authorities were the regional, provincial (district), county (district), volost Congresses of Soviets, consisting of representatives of city and rural Soviets of deputies (Sovdepov), elected by the population by direct open vote at election meetings. Candidate lists or individual candidates could be proposed by public, party, professional organizations and individual citizens. Congresses of Soviets and Councils of Deputies formed their executive bodies for current work - executive committees (executive committees). Attempts by individual local Soviets to establish their own Councils of People’s Commissars and even “People’s Commissariats of Foreign Affairs” became illegal: Art. 48 of the Constitution established that "the title of People’s Commissar belongs exclusively to members of the Council of People’s Commissars, who is in charge of the general affairs of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and cannot be assigned to any other representatives of the Soviet government, both in the center and in the localities . "

The constitution retained the multi-stage elections that had taken shape in 1917. So, Art. 25 determined that the All-Russian Congress is not elected directly, but by city Councils and provincial Congresses of Soviets. In turn, according to Art. 53 provincial Congresses of Soviets were composed of representatives of city Soviets and volost Congresses of Soviets, and volost congresses - from representatives of individual village councils. The norms of representation, the number of Soviets and the terms of office of deputies were unified for the first time since February 1917 (see Articles 53, 54, 57, etc.)

All citizens of the RSFSR of both sexes who have reached 18 years of age (or even younger if the local Council decides to lower the age norm) and those who earn livelihoods “were productive and enjoyable, enjoyed the right to elect and be elected, regardless of religion, nationality, settledness, etc. socially useful labor, as well as persons engaged in households providing for the first opportunity of productive labor ”: workers, farmers, employees (the above categories - only on condition that they do not use hired labor oud for profit), soldiers and sailors of the “Soviet Army” and all of the above categories of citizens, if they have lost their working capacity to some extent. Foreigners living in the territory of the Russian Soviet Republic and satisfying the above requirements were also given the right to elect and be elected - a rule unprecedented in the practice of suffrage ^[10] .

To implement the principle of the dictatorship of the proletariat of electoral rights, the following persons were deprived:

65. They do not elect and cannot be elected ...:

a) persons resorting to hired labor for the purpose of profit;

b) persons living on unearned income, such as interest on capital, income from enterprises, income from property, etc .;

c) private traders, trading and commercial intermediaries;

d) monks and clergymen of churches and religious cults;

e) employees and agents of the former police, special corps of gendarmes and security departments, as well as members of the house that reigned in Russia;

f) persons recognized in the established manner as mentally ill or demented, as well as persons who are under guardianship:

g) persons convicted of mercenary and defaming crimes for a period established by law or a court sentence.

- The Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918. Section Four. Active and passive suffrage

Four days after the adoption of the constitution, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee annulled the mandates of the Bolshevik deputies of Soviets of all levels ^{[23] [24]} .

During the Civil War , All-Russian Congresses of Soviets continued to be convened, and further organization and development of the system of local Soviets was carried out in territories controlled by the Bolsheviks. In December 1919, the sessional work procedure of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets was established; sessions were convened every two months. In December 1920, the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, which held meetings of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, monitored the implementation of its decisions, appointed People's Commissars, etc., was vested with legislative powers.

The governing body, which concentrated all power in the field of defense, in November 1918 was the Council of Workers and Peasants' Defense (SRKO), transformed in April 1920 into the Council of Labor and Defense (STO) as a commission under the Council of People's Commissars . Emergency authorities arose - Revolutionary Committees (Revolutionary Committees) for organizing defense, maintaining order, conducting mobilization, and more. On September 2, 1918, the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic (Revolutionary Military Council) was formed by the decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee to direct the country's armed forces.

At the initial stage in the Soviets, especially in rural areas, there was a multi-party system (a spectrum of left-wing parties was presented). However, already at that time, the Bolshevik party claimed its monopoly control over the activities of the Soviets through party factions. Such aspirations of the Bolshevik Party to control the Soviets were not always carried out democratically. On June 14, 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee expelled the Social Democrats (Mensheviks) and the Right Social Revolutionaries from the soviets, motivating this decision by the participation of these parties in the armed struggle against the "Soviet power" (and, in fact, against the power of the Bolsheviks). After the defeat of the July uprising of the Left SRs in the same year and the banning of their party, they were expelled from the Soviets. After that, the Soviets de facto turned into purely Bolshevik bodies, which were guided in their decisions by the instructions of the Central Committee of the RCP (B.) ^[1] . Throughout the Soviet country, the Bolsheviks dispersed those Soviets in which other parties gained predominance as a result of the elections ^[10] . For example, in Odessa , one of the largest centers of Soviet Ukraine, the Bolsheviks, with the help of the revolutionary committees, expelled deputies who were objectionable to them from the councils (elected, however, according to the current election system), thus achieving unconditional subordination of the Soviets to the local cells of the Bolshevik Party ^{[25] [ 26]} . As stated in the decision of the VIII Congress of the RCP (B.) , "The Communist Party is particularly seeking to carry out its program and its complete domination in modern state organizations, which are the Soviets" ^[27] .

At the end of May and the end of June 1918, the Bolsheviks were defeated in the elections to the Izhevsk Soviet, after which they dispersed it, and the power in the city passed first to a new executive committee, in which the Bolsheviks and their allies were Socialist-Revolutionary-Maximalists , and then to the Izhevsk military -revolutionary headquarters, headed by a Bolshevik. The dispersal of the Council and the subsequent arrests of leaders of opposition parties intensified the discontent of Izhevsk and led to the success of the Izhevsk-Votkinsk uprising . After the victory of the uprising, the political power of the Soviets was abolished, but it was recognized that "Soviets can exist only as voluntary class organizations of the proletariat and the labor peasantry . " The power of bodies of city and zemstvo self-government was restored on the basis of universal, direct, equal and secret suffrage.

The armed resistance of the Siberian peasantry to the communist regime in the early 1920s outnumbered the anti-Kolchak partisan movement (the largest of the uprisings was the West Siberian ) in terms of size, territory, duration and tenacity. The bulk of its participants rose to the struggle under the slogan "For advice without communists." In many areas, the rebels, having destroyed the Bolshevik cells, in practice proceeded to create non-partisan councils. If the councils consisted of people who were trusted by the local population, they were not reorganized ^[28] .

Во время Кронштадтского восстания восставшие выдвинули лозунги: «Советы — без коммунистов!», «Власть Советам, а не партиям!» и потребовали перевыборов Советов и изгнания из них большевиков. Подавив восстание, большевики ради сохранения власти в своих руках начали проведение Новой экономической политики , нацеленной на удовлетворение требований основной массы населения — крестьянства ^[29] .

30 декабря 1922 года был образован Союз Советских Социалистических Республик . В Конституции СССР и Конституциях союзных республик отразились изменения в системе Советов. Съезд Советов СССР стал верховным органом власти, созывался один раз в год, по требованию — созывался чрезвычайный Съезд. Он составлялся из представителей городских Советов и Советов городских поселений — по 1 депутату на 25 тыс. жителей (рабочих) и из представителей губернских съездов Советов — по 1 депутату на 125 тыс. жителей (крестьян).

Для руководства страной в период между Съездами избирался Центральный исполнительный комитет СССР , в свою очередь избиравший Президиум ЦИК СССР из 21 члена. Президиум созывал очередные сессии ЦИК не реже 3 раз в год. ЦИК состоял из двух равноправных палат: Союзного Совета и Совета Национальностей. Съезд Советов СССР избирал Союзный Совет из представителей союзных республик, пропорционально населению каждой, в составе 414 человек. Совет Национальностей образовывался из представителей союзных и автономных республик (по 5 человек от каждой), автономных областей РСФСР (по одному от каждой) и утверждался Съездом Советов СССР.

ЦИК СССР образовывал исполнительный и распорядительный орган — Совет Народных Комиссаров СССР во главе с Председателем СНК СССР.

В союзных и автономных республиках власть осуществляли Съезды Советов. На период между съездами они избирали ЦИКи республик, которые образовывали свои исполнительные органы — СНК республик . Краевые, областные, губернские, окружные, уездные, районные и волостные Съезды Советов, избираемые Советами депутатов городов и селений, избирали свои исполнительные органы — Исполнительные Комитеты и их Президиумы. С изменением административно-территориального деления менялись и советские органы.

Депутаты избирались трудящимися прямым открытым голосованием на избирательных собраниях из кандидатов коммунистов и беспартийных. Устанавливался перечень лиц, лишённых избирательных прав ( лишенцев ), аналогичный Конституции РСФСР 1918 года . Количество лишённых избирательных прав уменьшалось: в городах в 1923 году — 8,2 %, в 1934 году — 2,4 %.

Конституция СССР 1936 года создала новую единую систему органов государственной власти в центре и на местах, преобразовав Советы рабочих, крестьянских, казачьих и красноармейских депутатов в Советы депутатов трудящихся. Это стало следствием диктатуры пролетариата — победы над классами эксплуататоров двух дружественных классов: рабочих и крестьян. Все ограничения избирательных прав были отменены, введены всеобщие, равные и прямые выборы при тайном голосовании во все Советы. Избирательное право предоставлялось гражданам СССР, достигшим 18-летнего возраста, за исключением умалишённых и осуждённых судом с лишением избирательных прав. Кандидаты выставлялись по избирательным округам общественными организациями и обществами трудящихся.

Высшим органом государственной власти в СССР являлся Верховный Совет СССР , избиравшийся на 4 года. Он состоял из двух палат: Совета Союза и Совета Национальностей. Совет Союза избирался гражданами СССР по избирательным округам по норме: 1 депутат на 300 тысяч жителей. Совет Национальностей избирался гражданами СССР по норме: 25 депутатов от союзной республики, 11 от автономной республики, 5 от автономной области и 1 от каждого национального округа. Верховный Совет СССР избирал Президиум Верховного Совета СССР — высший орган власти Союза ССР в период между сессиями Верховного Совета. Также Верховный Совет СССР избирал правительство СССР — Совет Народных Комиссаров СССР (после 1946 г. — Совет Министров СССР ), высший исполнительный и распорядительный орган.

Аналогично формировалась система органов власти и управления союзных и автономных республик. Местными органами власти в краях, областях, автономных областях, округах, районах, городах, селах были Советы депутатов трудящихся, избиравшиеся гражданами СССР на 2 года. Исполнительными и распорядительными органами местных Советов являлись Исполнительные Комитеты . Все Советы избирались гражданами по установленной Конституцией и Положением о выборах в Советы норме представительства.

При разработке проекта Конституции в 1936 году планировалось сделать выборы альтернативными, то есть с альтернативными кандидатами при голосовании за каждый депутатский мандат. Однако из-за негативного отношения партийной номенклатуры ^[30] до 1989 года выборы были безальтернативными .

На XIX съезде ВКП(б) в 1952 году партийные органы были отграничены от Советской власти, однако быстро вернулись к прямому руководству после смерти И. В. Сталина ^[31] .

После того, как в январе 1957 года было принято постановление ЦК КПСС «Об улучшении деятельности Советов депутатов трудящихся и усилении их связи с массами», на местном уровне была поставлена задача по усилению роли местных Советов в хозяйственном и культурном строительстве, расширении их прав в планировании народного хозяйства, производстве и распределении продукции предприятий местной промышленности, организации жилищно-бытового и дорожного строительства, развитии производства строительных материалов и топлива, а также в решении финансово-бюджетных вопросов. В результате в 1961 году возникла новая форма работы депутатов местных Советов в своих избирательных округах — депутатские группы и депутатские посты , что позволило оперативнее решать вопросы населения ^[32] .

В соответствии с Конституцией СССР 1977 года , все Советы народных депутатов (закреплённое в Конституции новое название Советов) избирались на основе всеобщего, равного и прямого избирательного права при тайном голосовании: Верховный Совет СССР и Верховные Советы союзных и автономных республик — на 4 года, местные Советы — на 2 года. Советы образовывали систему, низовым уровнем которой были сельские и поселковые Советы, высшим — Верховный Совет СССР . Советы были обязаны систематически отчитываться перед населением в своей работе.

Верховный Совет СССР был высшим представительным и единственным законодательным органом в СССР. Верховные Советы союзных и автономных республик — высшими органами власти на территории республик. Местные Советы — органами власти на территории административно-территориальных единиц (краев, областей, автономных областей, округов, районов, городов, сёл, станиц, деревень, хуторов, кишлаков, аулов). Полномочия каждого уровня системы местных Советов подробно определялись Указами Президиума Верховного Совета СССР, законами союзных и автономных республик. Указы Президиума Верховного Совета СССР «Об основных правах и об основных обязанностях сельских и поселковых Советов депутатов трудящихся» (1968), «Об основных правах и обязанностях городских и районных в городах Советов депутатов трудящихся» (1971), «Об основных правах и обязанностях районных советов депутатов трудящихся» (1971), Закон СССР о статусе депутатов Советов депутатов трудящихся в СССР (1971).

Верховный Совет избирал Совет Министров СССР , а Советы республик избирали Советы Министров союзных и автономных республик. Местные Советы избирали из числа депутатов Исполнительные Комитеты (Исполкомы) — исполнительные и распорядительные органы Советов, подотчетные им и вышестоящим исполкомам.

Исполкомы созывали Сессии Совета (общее собрание депутатов) не реже 4 раз в год (для областных, краевых и городских Советов городов, имеющих районное деление); для районных, городских (в городах без районного деления), районных в городах, сельских и поселковых Советов — не реже 6 раз в год. На сессиях решались вопросы, отнесённые законом к полномочиям данного Совета. По инициативе депутатов совета и вышестоящих Советов созывались внеочередные Сессии. Решения принимались простым большинством голосов присутствующих депутатов. Советы образовывали отраслевые депутатские комиссии.

По мнению ряда исследователей, Советы всех уровней в СССР не обладали никакой реальной властью и служили лишь декорацией, скрывавшей реальное положение вещей: бесконтрольную власть номенклатуры ^{[33] [34] [35]} . Видный исследователь политической системы СССР М. С. Восленский писал ^[33] :

Центрами принятия решений являются не Советы, столь щедро перечисленные в Конституции СССР, а органы, которые в ней не названы. Это партийные комитеты разных уровней: от ЦК до райкома КПСС. Они и только они принимали все до единого политические решения любого масштаба в СССР.

По мнению российского историка С. А. Павлюченкова , превращение Советов в идеологическую декорацию централизованной власти фактически началось весной 1918 года в ходе проведения большевиками непопулярных мер военного коммунизма ^[36] :

В марте — мае Советы Саратовской, Самарской, Симбирской, Астраханской, Вятской, Казанской, Тамбовской и других губерний, где подавляющее большинство делегатов представляли интересы крестьянства, при поддержке большинства рабочих делегатов приняли постановления об отмене старых твёрдых цен на хлеб и фактически восстановили свободную торговлю. Это был бунт против экономической политики большевиков. Реакция из Москвы последовала в виде известного декрета от 13 мая о введении продовольственной диктатуры и особенно декрета ВЦИК и СНК от 27 мая о реорганизации Наркомпрода и местных продовольственных органов. Последним устанавливалось подчинение всех губернских и уездных продовольственных органов не местным Советам, а непосредственно наркому продовольствия, который также получал право в случае необходимости отменять постановления Совдепов и входить во ВЦИК с предложением о предании их суду.

Тем самым был сделан первый шаг по упразднению советской власти на местах и концентрации властных функций в Центре. Вскоре по пути, проложенному Наркомпродом, двинулись ВСНХ, военное и другие ведомства, установившие свою вертикальную систему подчинения и ограничившие роль органов советской власти до минимума.

Оппоненты большевиков назвали декрет 27 мая «банкротством идеи Советов». При обсуждении его проекта во ВЦИКе меньшевик Абрамович произнёс пророческие слова о тех, кто отправился в великий поход за свободой и справедливостью, но пришёл к изначальной точке:

«Вам (большевикам) приходится возвращаться к старой, испытанной бюрократизации, вам приходится передать всю страну в руки центральной бюрократии, т. е., другими словами, вы доказываете этим новым проектом только то, что Россия сейчас не способна управляться методом обыкновенной человеческой демократии, что она не способна управляться путём вашей советской демократии и что, следовательно, она и может управляться только как встарь, бюрократическим аппаратом».

После Августовского путча 1991 года исполнительно-распорядительные органы Советов — исполкомы, были заменены администрациями, председателей исполкомов заменили главами администраций, причём главы областных администраций назначались на должность Президентом РФ. К концу 1991 года президиумы Советов были повсеместно упразднены, советы народных депутатов были разделены на малые и большие советы. Происходило усиление исполнительной ветви власти и повсеместное оттеснение Советов на второй план. Осенью 1993 года в ходе политического кризиса система Советов была ликвидирована президентом Б. Н. Ельциным , сначала разогнан Съезд народных депутатов и Верховный Совет, затем распущены Советы всех уровней. ^[37]

После роспуска Советов в России с 1993 года начали создаваться новые представительные органы на местах: Думы, законодательные собрания, муниципальные парламенты.

Представительные органы некоторых регионов РФ и муниципальных образований сохранили название Советы, но на практике они ничем не отличаются от других представительных органов РФ . В этом же смысле надо понимать термин «Совет» в названиях « Верховная Рада » (украинский парламент, «Рада» в дословном переводе означает «Совет») и « Совет Федерации » (верхняя палата Федерального Собрания РФ).

1. Принцип « императивного мандата ». Наказы — поручения избирателей своим депутатам, принимавшиеся открытым голосованием избирателей на встрече с кандидатом и исполнявшиеся Советами. Регулярные отчеты депутатов перед избирателями и право избирателей досрочно отзывать депутатов, не оправдавших доверия.
2. Принцип «работающих корпораций». Советы являлись одновременно законодательными и исполнительными органами власти. Право формировать подотчетные исполнительные комитеты, самостоятельно решать любой вопрос, относящийся к ведению исполнительного органа, исполнять свои решения. Отрицание доктрины разделения властей .
3. Принцип «непостоянной непрофессиональной основы». В состав Советов входят граждане, непосредственно занятые на производстве, то есть исполняющие общественные и государственные обязанности наряду со своей производственной деятельностью. Статус депутата не является профессией. Выборным должностным лицам, оторванным от производства, назначается зарплата не больше средней зарплаты рабочего.
4. Принцип « демократического централизма ». Сочетание демократических принципов выборности, сменяемости, подотчётности, инициативы, самоуправления, гласности и свободы критики с централизацией и дисциплиной — руководством из единого центра, учётом мнения меньшинства при выработке решения и безусловным подчинением меньшинства большинству после принятия решения, обязательность решений вышестоящих органов для нижестоящих.
5. Принцип «общественной организации». Вокруг Советов группируются общественные организации и инициативные группы населения (домкомы, женсоветы и пр.), на которые Советы опираются в работе и откуда получают пополнение.
6. Принцип развития народовластия. Движение Советов к неполитической демократии — форме общественного самоуправления при коммунизме .
7. Принцип «диктатуры пролетариата» (до 1977 года). Классовый принцип формирования. До 1936 года классовые ограничения на участие в Советах и их выборах. Сталинская Конституция СССР 1936 года утвердила «власть трудового народа» с отменой ограничений. Конституция СССР 1977 года провозгласила «общенародность государства» и выполнение задач данного принципа.
8. Принцип многоступенчатого формирования (до 1936 года ). Советы вышестоящего уровня избирались не населением, а нижестоящими Советами. Отменен Сталинской Конституцией СССР 1936 года .
9. Руководящая роль коммунистической партии . С 1918 (юридически с 1977) до 1989 года Советами в РСФСР-СССР фактически руководила коммунистическая партия , всё больше опираясь на класс советской бюрократии, так называемую партийную « номенклатуру » ^{[38] [39]} .

В ходе революций в Западной Европе, трудящиеся Венгрии, Германии, Австрии, Чехословакии стали создавать организации по типу Советов, не копируя их точно. В 1930—1931 « Нгеан-Хатиньские советы » существовали во вьетнамских провинциях Французского Индокитая . В 1927—1937 Советы («Сувэйай») существовали в Китае. В итоге Советы пролетарской диктатуры заменялись представительными органами народной демократии.

• Приказ №1
• Заводской совет
• The village council
• Советы народных депутатов
• Верховный Совет
• Съезд Советов
• Съезд народных депутатов
• Антисоветизм

• Оберучев, К. М. Советы и Советская власть в России . — Нью-Йорк: Народоправство, 1919.
• Popov M.V. , Kazennov A.S. Tips as a form of power. - SPb .: Publishing house of the Polytechnic. un-that . 2013 .-- 129 p.
• Tips // Scientific Communism: Dictionary / Alexandrov V.V., Amvrosov A.A., Anufriev E.A. et al .; Ed. A. M. Rumyantsev . - 4th ed., Ext. - M .: Politizdat , 1983 .-- 352 p.

• October 1993 Uprising