History of Chile

About 30,000 years BC, the first settlers penetrate the territory of America through the Bering Strait . From there, the settlement gradually spreads to the south, until finally in the 10th millennium BC. e. the extreme southern point of South America, Tierra del Fuego, was not reached.

On the residential site in the city of Osorno in the Pilauko locality, the oldest human footprint in South America was found, about 15.6 thousand years old. The trail belonged to an adult weighing approx. 70 kg, which, most likely, belonged to the species Ihominipes modernus ^{[1] [2]} .

The first settlers in what is now Chile were the nomadic Mapuche Indians who settled about 13,000 years BC. e. fertile Andes valleys and oases of the highlands of the Atacama Desert. Unfavorable climatic conditions and especially extreme aridity of the Atacama desert stood on the way to a more dense settlement of the region.

From about 8000 to 2000 BC. e. in the Valle de Arica there was a Chinchorro culture, during which the first mummifications of the deceased were known to mankind. About 2000 years old. BC e. in the Great North, agriculture and animal husbandry began to gradually develop. Around 600 g. e. Polynesian peoples settled on Easter Island , the heyday of which came in the next 400 years and which created the famous Moai .

Before the advent of the Spaniards, the territory of present-day Chile was also inhabited by numerous other ethnic groups: changos , atacamenos , and aymara lived in northern Chile between the rivers Lauca and Copiapo . Further south to the Aconcagua River, the territories were populated by diamonds. Representatives of the aforementioned four ethnic groups were engaged in fishing, agriculture, hunting and crafts, conducted trade among themselves, and lived in tribal and family communities. Southeast of the Fjord of Reloncavi, the Cordillera were inhabited by Chicuillanes and Poyas , who were engaged in hunting and gathering . In the extreme south of the country, up to the Strait of Magellan, the Chonos and Alakaluf settled, and on Alpine Tierra Alakaluf , Yamana , Selknam and Haus lived .

With the advent of the 10th Inca Tupac Yupanka in 1471 , the Incas began to move deep into Chile. During his reign, by 1493, the Incas seized territories up to the Maule River south of Curicó. Here they came upon the massive resistance of the Mapuche Indians, so further advance south became impossible. Inca power extended to almost all the indigenous inhabitants of the north, for example, the Incas forced the Penuche tribe to corvee labor. Near San Pedro de Atacama, the Incas erected the fortress of Pukara de Quitor , the basis of which was the strengthening of the atamenos. Here in 1540 there was a battle with the invading Spaniards.

By the beginning of the XVI century, the number of Indians of Chile was about 1 million people. The indigenous population was at the stage of the tribal system with a predominance of community tenure. The Araucans, the most developed and warlike tribes, underwent a transition from matriarchy to patriarchy.

Conquistadors

The first European to set foot on Chilean land was Ferdinand Magellan in 1520, who landed in the area of ​​present - day Punta Arenas and by whose name the Strait of Magellan was named. In 1533, Spanish forces under Francisco Pizarro effortlessly captured the Inca wealth, but nevertheless did not dare to advance to the territory of present-day Chile, fenced by the Atacama Desert and the Andean chain.

The first Europeans to reach Nueva Toledo by land were Diego de Almagro and his escort, who traveled from Cuzco to Peru in 1535 in search of gold, but could not find it. On June 4, 1536, Diego de Almagro reached the Copiapo Valley and sent Gomez de Alvarado accompanying him further south. Throughout the journey to the Maule River, they were not offered any resistance. But at Rio Itat they encountered the Mapuche Indians and got involved in heavy fighting, were forced to retreat. Between Pizarro and Almagro there was a conflict, which over time, everything escalated and acquired the character of a war. The culmination of this conflict was the assassination of Almagro in 1538 and Pizarro in 1541.

In 1540, an officer from Pizarro's subordination, Pedro de Valdivia , went with hundreds of soldiers and adventurers from Peru to Chile. There, despite the resistance of the Mapuche Indians, he founded the first European settlements. As he progressed, he founded the settlements: Santiago , La Serena and Valparaiso , which simultaneously served as fortifications. Soon, the Indians began to show active resistance. Already in September 1541, they attacked Santiago . The Spaniards needed to fight against 20,000 Mapuche . And only thanks to ingenuity Ines de Suarez (beloved Pedro de Valdivia), the Spaniards miraculously managed to avoid defeat and turned the Indians into a stampede.

Mapuche War

The Spaniards continued to expand their possessions in the south: in 1550 they founded the city of Concepcion and in 1552 the city ​​of Valdivia . Under the leadership of the leader Lautaro, the Mapuche fought fiercely. In the fall of 1553 they defeated the Spaniards at Fort Tucapel and killed Pedro de Valdivia ; it is believed that he was captured by the Indians and they forced him to drink liquid gold. Most of the cities built by the Spaniards were destroyed by the Indians.

Soon, the governor of Chile became Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza , who began the ruthless persecution of the Mapuche Indians. On his orders, Francisco de Villagra began a military campaign against the Indians. On February 26, 1554, the Spaniards suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Marihueno. After that, the Mapuche managed to destroy a significant part of the Spanish settlements. After the fall of Concepcion, the Mapuche moved in 1555 to Santiago de Chile. However, after the defeat of the fortress of Peteroa, the Indians unexpectedly stopped their offensive operations, suggesting that the Spaniards would launch a massive counterattack. The commandant of the Imperial fortress, Pedro de Villagran, succeeded in killing the Mapuche leader Lautaro on August 1, 1557, as a result of an unexpected night attack on the Indians.

Submit Santillan

Fernando de Santillan was the author of the famous " Taxi Santillana " ( es: Tasa de Santillán ), introduced in 1558 in Chile - these were the first laws regulating relations between the Spaniards and Mapuche . They were established due to the large population decline from migrations and the mistreatment of the Spaniards with the Indians .

The lodge consisted of the Mita system and consisted of the obligation of the Cacique of a group of Indians to send one of six Indians to mines and mines, and every fifth to agricultural work. Women and people under the age of 18 and older than 50 were exempted from work, and it was established that the Indians contained an enkomendero , who were supposed to treat them from diseases, take care of their conversion to Christianity , not treat them like beasts, and not force them to work on Sundays and holidays. The existence of a system of alkalds in mines , which were obliged to look after the discipline of gold washers, was claimed.

On June 4, 1559, Fernando issued a ruling on the good rule, reconciliation and protection of Chile. ^[3]

Ercilla y Zuniga

The description of the military campaigns of 1557-1559 of the year of his superior, Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, was to be taken up by the Spanish writer Alonso de Hercilla y Zuniga . However, in his poem "Araucan" the writer presented the events completely differently than the general expected from him: he stigmatized the cruelty of the conquistadors, condemned them with a thirst for power and gold, and highlighted the heroism and courage of the locals - Araucans. The central character of the novel was the leader of the Mapuche Kaupolitan, who was brutally murdered in 1558 by the Spaniards.

December 16, 1575 Valdivia was shocked by a very strong earthquake, the strength of which is commensurate with one of the largest known earthquakes on May 22, 1960. The earthquake caused landslides that blocked the source of Lake Rignyue . Four months later, after a dam formed as a result of landslides erupted under the pressure of water, the city was flooded. The administrator of the city and the chronicler of Chile, Pedro Marinho de Lobéra, provided significant support in rebuilding the city and helping the victims of the disaster.

War Results

In 1597, Pelentaro was elected military leader of the Mapuche, who launched massive attacks on the cities of Valdivia and Osorno, as well as many other cities near Araucania . In 1599, Valdivia was captured by the Mapuche, after which the Spaniards lost power over the city for several decades. Governor Alfonso de Ribera had to withdraw Spanish troops across the Bio Bio River . In 1641, between the Spaniards and Mapuche, the Quillin Peace Treaty was concluded, according to which the border passed along the Bio-Bio River. But the peace treaty lasted only a few years. The Spaniards made constant attempts to recapture the lost territory, but their attempts were not crowned with great success. In 1770, the Spanish army was utterly defeated by pointes and various Mapuche troops. Only after more than 100 years, the Chilean and Argentine forces in 1881 again managed to recapture the territories of Mapuche and Pehuenche. This 300-year conflict is called the Araucan War . The echoes of the conflict are palpable to this day. In 2000, a Mapuche group seized the European Union's office in Santiago de Chile in protest against the division of land.

Economic and social development

Since the gold and silver deposits in Chile were too depleted too early, the country was not attracted much interest, and economic development was rather slow. Agriculture occupied a paramount role in the economy. The fertile valleys of central Chile provided food to the north. In Chile, such systems consisting of patronage and repression as the hacienda and subsequently the encomienda , have taken root under these systems, with the natives (indígenas) in fact treated as slaves. The racial division also extended to mestizos and African slaves, who were also forbidden to live in the villages of the Indians.

In 1578, Francis Drake, at the direction of the English crown, plundered the port of Valparaiso and made an unsuccessful attempt to attack La Serena. Over the following centuries, pirates constantly attacked Chile. The development of the country was prevented along with the attacks of the Indians as well as natural disasters: powerful tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Many cities were completely destroyed, such as Valdivia in 1575 and Concepcion in 1570 and 1751. On May 13, 1647, a powerful earthquake struck Santiago de Chile, killing 12,000 people. In 1730 and 1783, the city was again shocked by severe earthquakes. Between 1598 and 1723, the colonial rule of Spain was hindered by the English seekers of easy prey, as well as Dutch merchants and pirates.

In 1704, the Scottish sailor who survived the shipwreck, Alexander Selkirk, was completely alone for four years on one of the islands in the archipelago of Juan Fernandez . His story and personality served as the prototype for Daniel Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe , written in 1719 .

The colonial power of Spain in 1808 was controlled by Napoleon Bonaparte, who elevated his brother Joseph to the Spanish throne. On July 14, 1810, the Chilean Creoles revolted, ousted the Spanish governor and replaced him with a Creole aristocrat. September 18, 1810 (now the national holiday - the day of national independence of Chile) was replaced by the captain general, and his functions were transferred to the National Government junta (Junta de Gobierno) with his own troops. However, the junta was unable to maintain control of the country, and anarchy reigned in the country. This led to the outbreak of civil war between the royal loyal royalists and liberal patriots led by Jose Miguel Carrera . The junta did not dare to completely break with Spain, which was required by the radical wing of the patriots. In 1811, a national congress was created, but since its majority was composed of pro-Hispanic elements, one of the leaders of the war of independence, H. M. Carrera, dissolved the congress and took power into his own hands; Carrera has taken a number of measures to strengthen the country's independence. At the same time, Carrera’s dictatorial regime led to internecine strife and weakened the camp of patriots. In 1812, a group of Chileans, surrounded by the dictatorship of the Carrera brothers, drafted a constitution that provided for Chile's independence under the formal rule of the Spanish king. In 1813, Carrera was replaced by the head of the army of patriots Bernardo O'Higgins .

In response, the Spanish forces marched to Valdivia under the leadership of the Peruvian general Mariano Osorio to defeat the patriots. As in all South American independence movements, Creoles fought against each other in the first place. At the Battle of Rancagua on October 1, 1814, the Chilean liberation army led by Jose Miguel Carrera and Bernardo O'Higgins was defeated by Spanish troops, and its leaders fled to Argentina. The period from 1814 to 1817 is called the time of the Reconquistadors. With the support of Argentinean Jose de San Martin, the Reconquistadors gathered a joint army to fight against the Spaniards. They crossed the Andes and utterly defeated the Spanish army, quantitatively superior to them, at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12, 1817 and entered Santiago. O'Higgins from February 1817 became the supreme ruler of Chile.

On February 12, 1818, Chile declared its independence and after some time, on April 5, 1818, the patriots achieved their next significant victory in the battle of Maypu . In 1820, the Chilean flotilla led by Thomas Cochran managed to recapture Valdivia, but the final victory over the Spaniards took place only in 1826, when the last Spaniards who fled to the island of Chiloe were defeated.

In 1818 , the Chilean constitution was adopted, consolidating the republican form of government. Bourgeois freedoms were declared in the constitution, all the fullness of the executive power was concentrated in the hands of the supreme ruler O'Higgins. Chile began to establish relations with other countries. In 1822, Great Britain granted Chile its first loan of 5 million pesos, which was the beginning of the penetration of English capital into the economy of Chile and the strengthening of its influence on the political life of the country. O'Higgins' struggle against the privileges of the land oligarchy and the Catholic Church, his attempts to carry out progressive reforms and limit the influence of the church caused discontent among feudal clerical circles. The promulgation of the new constitution (October 1822 ), aimed at democratizing the political system and restricting the privileges of the aristocracy, led to a further aggravation of the situation in the country. Under pressure from the opposition on January 28, 1823, O'Higgins resigned and was forced to emigrate. In April 1823, General R. Freire became the supreme ruler, trying to continue the policy of O'Higgins. The fierce struggle for power between various groups ended in 1830 with the victory of conservatives, representing the interests of the landowning oligarchy and the church, relying on foreign capitalists.

A wealthy businessman Diego Portales , a consistent conservative who advocated strong power from large property owners and the church, relying on a disciplined army, played a large role in the country's political life at that time. Portales' political views formed the basis of the 1833 constitution. The Constitution of 1833, which remained in force until 1925, consolidated the dominance of the landowning oligarchy and the church, and until 1875 , conservative governments were in power. Under the new constitution, centralized administration was introduced in Chile: the head of the country was the president, who had the broadest powers, including the right of absolute veto . The right to vote was granted only to men who knew how to read and write and who met the requirements of property qualification. Catholicism was recognized as the state religion, all other religions were banned. In the 1830s and 40s. many new national and foreign enterprises appeared. With the development of crafts and industry, especially mining, the number of workers increased.

In 1836, Bolivia and Peru entered into an agreement on the creation of a federation. The government of Chile took this agreement as a military threat and presented an ultimatum, demanding the termination of the agreement, and after the refusal declared war . This step, taken on the initiative of Portales, provoked the discontent of the military, and in 1837 Portales became a victim of political assassination.

During the reign of President Manuel Bulnes (1841-1851), an immigration policy was adopted with the aim of populating the southern lake region. In the north, copper mines were developed. Foreign trade expanded, which was greatly facilitated by the emergence of steam vessels. Public education developed faster than in other Latin American countries. Manuel Mont, the Minister of Education in the government of Bulnes, founded the first teacher training school in 1842, proposing to head it Domingo Faustino Sarmiento , a remarkable Argentinean educator, later president of Argentina. In 1843, the University of Chile was founded, the rector of which was a prominent Venezuelan educator Andres Bello .

Progressive activity of Bulnes was continued by his successor as president, Manuel Montt . During his tenure, the construction of railways was carried out, a census was carried out. Progress in the public education system, the influence of political emigrants, mainly from Argentina, the publication of several magazines and newspapers, the emergence of national writers and poets - all these factors played a role in arousing public interest in social and political reforms. President Montt abolished mayorates and encouraged religious tolerance.

In the years 1861-1891, liberals were in power in Chile. During this time, a number of laws were passed that limited the privileges of the land aristocracy and the church. The public education system has expanded, transportation, communications and utilities have improved significantly; the government encouraged immigration and further land development. The constitution was amended, which abolished the property qualification, and also forbade presidents to be elected for a second term without interruption and limited the right of absolute veto. The largest conflict during this period erupted due to attempts to limit the power of the church. Also in the 2nd half of the XIX century. the class consciousness of the working people began to awaken, the working class embarked on the path of organized struggle. Marxism gained distribution, the first working newspaper El Proletario ( 1875 ) was published.

In 1879, Great Britain provoked Chile into a war against Peru and Bolivia ( Second Pacific War of 1879–1883) in order to capture large deposits of nitrate in their territories. As a result of the war, the Peruvian province [[Tarapaca [[and Bolivian - Antofagasta . The capture of saltpeter deposits by Chile gave an impetus to the rapid development of capitalism, and the penetration of English capital intensified. For many years, duties on exported nitrate amounted to half or more than half of national income.

The coming to power in 1886 of the liberal H.M.Balmaceda , a supporter of the country's independent economic and political development, provoked dissatisfaction with the oligarchy , supported by foreign monopolies, the church and the military top. As a result of the civil war unleashed by them , Balmaceda was forced to resign as president in 1891 . Balmaceda, who took refuge after a defeat in the walls of the Argentinean embassy, ​​committed suicide. Representatives of the financial and landowning elite came to power, contributing to the subordination of the country to English, and from the beginning of the 20th century. American capital. The difficult economic situation of the working people was caused by the strike movement, which became especially widespread in 1905–07. Iquique , Antofagasta , Concepcion . The organization of the working class grew. In 1909 , the Federation of Chilean Workers (FOCH) was created, and in 1912 - the Socialist Workers' Party. During World War I, 1914–18, Chile remained neutral. The US monopolies have increased penetration into the industry of Chile, especially copper, strengthening its economic and political influence in the country.

With the end of the First World War, the export of saltpeter from Chile decreased by more than three times (from 2.8 million tons in 1917 to 0.8 million tons in 1919). This led to a deterioration in the country's economic situation and exacerbated the struggle of the working people, especially under the influence of the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia . In 1922, the Socialist Workers Party was transformed into the Communist Party of Chile (CPC).

In 1920, Arturo Alessandri won the presidential election as a candidate from the liberal coalition, representing the interests of the middle class and workers. Under him, some democratic reforms were carried out in the country, including an 8-hour working day and compulsory social insurance; a new constitution was adopted, proclaiming fundamental democratic freedoms, the church was separated from the state.

Mid 20s in Chile, it was characterized by political instability. On September 6, 1924, a military coup took place in Chile, President Alessandri was overthrown, a military junta came to power. In January 1925, another military coup led by two colonels Carlos Ibáñez and Marmaduk Grove . They reinstated the ousted Alessandry as president. Carlos Ibáñez took the post of Minister of War in the government of Alessandri. In March 1925, President Alessandry issued a decree on constitutional reforms in the country. In September 1925, the Chilean constitution was adopted, declaring general democratic rights and freedoms. The new constitution proclaimed the separation of the church from the state, introduced compulsory primary education, declared the priority of the public good over property rights, and established accountability of the cabinet to the president, not to congress.

The 1925 election brought success to Emiliano Figueroa , a single candidate for conservatives and liberals. The power of the Minister of War Carlos Ibáñez increased under President Emiliano Figueroa. He became Minister of the Interior, and in February 1927 dismissed Figueroa, established a military dictatorship and took the post of vice president.

In the presidential election declared after Figueroa’s resignation, Ibanez’s only rival was the communist Elias Lafferte , who was exiled to a remote southern island and could not participate in the election campaign. In March 1927, the Communist Party of Chile was outlawed. Traditional parties did not vote. As a result of such "elections" on May 22, 1927, Ibáñez won 98% of the vote. Ibáñez ruled with the help of presidential decrees, at his discretion changed deputies, actively arrested political opponents. Ibanez began to be called "Mysolini of the New World." Ibáñez combined dictatorial methods of government with social demagogy, exposing himself as a supporter of small people and an opponent of the oligarchy. He created pro-government unions - the Republican Confederation of Civil Action. At the same time, in 1927-1928, the leaders of the country's most massive trade union center, FOC, were arrested. FOC and anarcho-syndicalist organizations were also outlawed. Ibáñez scored loans in the USA and began an extensive public works program ^[4] .

In the early 30s. protests against dictatorship took place; Demonstrations, strikes and uprisings that swept the whole country forced Chilean dictator C. Ibáñez to resign. In July 1931, Ibanez fled the country. In the October presidential election, the single candidate of the traditional parties (Radical, Conservative and United Liberals), radical Juan Esteban Montero, was elected president. The regime of H. Montero organized a “hunt for communists” throughout the country. People were killed on the streets, in hospitals, at home at the Christmas table. Unions responded to terror with a general strike. By 1932, the total number of unemployed in the country reached 350 thousand people. June 3, 1932 a group of soldiers led by Colonel Marmaduke Grove made a coup, overthrew Montero, proclaimed Chile a socialist republic . In a number of cities, Soviets of workers 'and soldiers' deputies arose. 12 days later, as a result of the new military coup, the "socialist republic" fell. On June 16, 1932, the rebel units led by Carlos Davila occupied the outpost of the revolutionary forces - the El Bosco military base, then the Ministry of War building, depriving Grove of communications with its local supporters. Two days later, the rebels of Carlos Davila captured the presidential palace of La Moneda and arrested the revolutionary government. Marmaduke Grove and Esteban Matte were exiled to Easter., And Carlos Davila became president of the country and launched bloody terror in the country. In September-October 1932, two more military coups took place, the result of which was an amnesty of political prisoners and a new presidential election. In October 1932, Arturo Alessandri was re- elected president, helping to strengthen the position of foreign capital.

In 1933, the Socialist Party of Chile was founded, Marmaduke Grove became its leader. In March 1936 , the Popular Front was created with the participation of the Radical, Communist and Socialist parties.

In 1938, an attempt at military rebellion was suppressed. Former Chilean president (1927-1931) Carlos Ibáñez (he was soon amnestied) was convicted of participation in a fascist putsch.

1938-1952 - center-left governments are in power.

In 1938 , the candidate for the Popular Front was the radical P. Aguirre Cerda . The Aguirre government held some progressive measures (the labor law, the law on bank loans for peasants, etc.), but did not dare to carry out agrarian reform. The post of Minister of Health from 1939 to 1942 was held by the socialist Salvador Allende .

In 1941, the Popular Front collapsed. In 1942 , the Democratic Alliance was created - a bloc of the Radical, Communist, Socialist and Democratic Parties, whose candidate, radical Juan Antonio Rios Morales, won the 1942 Chilean presidential election . In February 1945, Chile declared war on Nazi Germany , and in April 1945 - the Japanese Empire ; in fact, Chile did not participate in the Second World War .

In 1946, Democratic Alliance candidate Radical Gabriel Gonzalez Videla became president. The composition of his government included representatives of the HRC. However, in the context of the Cold War, Gonzalez Videla in 1947 withdrew the Communists from the government, broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR (established in 1944). In 1948, the national congress passed a “law on the defense of democracy," according to which the HRC, progressive trade unions, and other democratic organizations were banned. In the economy of Chile, the American monopolies dominated. At the initiative of the Communists in 1951, the People's Front ( Spanish Frente del Pueblo ) was created, in 1953 the United Trade Union Center for Workers, and in 1956 the Popular Front (FRA) ( Spanish Frente de Acción Popular; FRAP ), in which, besides Communist and Socialist parties, representatives of other parties entered. The strike movement that unfolded in 1954–55 swept over 1 million people. Under the pressure of the broad FRAP movement, the “Law on the Defense of Democracy” was repealed in 1958, the activities of the HRC were legalized.

1952-1958 - reign of ex-dictator Ibáñez democratically elected president .

In July 1957, the Christian Democratic Party (CDP) was founded on the basis of the National Phalanx and the Social Christian Conservative Party, which became an influential force in the center of the political spectrum. Its leader was Eduardo Frey Montalva .

In the presidential election of 1958, the Social Democratic Party candidate Socialist Salvador Allende received 28.9% and gained only 30 thousand votes less than the right-wing candidate Jorge Alessandri , who received 31.6%. CDU candidate Eduardo Frey Montalva scored 20.7% of the vote and took third place. The government of Alessandry (1958–64) pursued a policy of attracting foreign investment and suppressing the labor movement.

Reforms During Democratic Governance

In the presidential election of 1964, CDU leader Eduardo Frey Montalva won with 56.1% of the vote. Leftist candidate Salvador Allende received 38.9%. Frey restored diplomatic relations with the USSR (1964), proclaimed the reform program “Revolution in the conditions of freedom”, the key of which were agrarian reform and the “chilization” of copper (the state bought back 51% of the shares of copper mining enterprises).

The government has implemented tax reform in Chile long overdue. Until 1964, the land cadastre did not actually exist in the country, property and income taxes were paid on the basis of the underestimated value of land plots. The budget was formed due to indirect taxes and import duties. With the help of the United States, an inventory was created and the tax service was reformed. As a result of the tax reform, direct taxes for the wealthy classes were increased by 40%, out of 167 thousand taxpayers, 12 thousand large landowners began to pay 63% of the total amount of property tax, which was levied on a progressive scale.

In July 1967, Congress passed a law on agrarian reform. According to it, land areas of over 80 hectares of irrigated land were subject to expropriation if they were not cultivated or were cultivated inefficiently. However, if the land was cultivated productively (a special system for scoring the efficiency of farming was compiled), then up to 320 ha of irrigated land was left to the owner. Out of 260 thousand farms, 4 thousand were expropriated (1,134 by the Frey government and 3,283 by the Allende government). It was these 4 thousand that owned half of the entire agricultural area of ​​Chile. Land was withdrawn for redemption, but the assessment of its value was based on the data of the landowners themselves, for whom they had previously paid property tax. Almost all landowners in the past underestimated the value of land at times, which now turned against them. It was this point of agrarian reform that caused the most fierce opposition from large landowners and their political lobby in the Congress - the Liberal and Conservative Parties. In addition, the government paid in cash only a small part of the cost (from 1 to 10%) of the expropriated plots, for the remaining share the owner received government bonds with 3% per annum with a maturity of 5, 25 and 30 years. Each year, the value of bonds was indexed depending on price increases. The expropriated land was transferred not to the private ownership of peasants and farm laborers, but asentimentos to production cooperatives. After three to five years, members of Asentimentos had to decide: to keep their cooperative or to divide the land into private property.

Salvador Allende

In December 1969, the Communist, Socialist, Radical, Social Democratic Parties, the Movement for Unified People’s Action (MAPU) and Independent People’s Action formed the “ People’s Unity ” bloc, which put forward a program of fundamental social and economic transformations on the eve of the 1970 presidential election.

In the presidential election of 1970, Socialist Salvador Allende , a candidate for the People’s Unity bloc, although received 2.3% less than in the previous presidential election, won first place with 36.6% of the vote, outperforming Jorge Jr. Alessandri. The leader of the left wing of the Christian Democratic Party, nominated by a candidate from his party, Radomiro Tomić took third place with 28.1% of the vote. According to the Chilean Constitution of the President, of the two candidates with the most votes, he was to elect Congress on October 24, 1970. In the Congress, “National Unity” had only 80 seats out of 200, the National Party had 45 seats, the Christian Democratic Party 75. Thus, the fate of the future president was in the hands of Christian democrats. On September 23, 1970, the leadership of the Christian Democratic Party passed to Salvador Allende the document “The Position of the Christian Democratic Party in Connection with the Plenary Session of the Congress”. The document demanded from Allende legally binding guarantees of freedom of speech, non-interference in the system of military appointments, refusal to create parallel armies of military formations such as labor police, preservation of the non-political nature of schools and universities, promises not to introduce censorship and not to nationalize the media. In exchange for such guarantees, the CDU faction in Congress was ready to support Allende in the October 24 elections. Allende gave such guarantees by signing the Statute of Constitutional Guarantees, and was elected president on October 24 by receiving the votes of the deputies of the Christian Democratic Party.

In November 1970, Allende formed a government with the participation of representatives of all parties included in the Popular Unity bloc. The Allende government nationalized the copper ore enterprises owned by US companies, limited the activity of the industrial, landlord, and financial structures of the economy, and nationalized large land plots of Chilean farmers. Diplomatic relations with Cuba were restored and diplomatic relations were established with the socialist countries. With the help of money emission, employees of nationalized enterprises, civil servants and pensioners were raised salaries and pensions, which led to hyperinflation and a rapid increase in prices for goods and services. The government soon began to lack funds for its program; in order to prevent a reduction in costs, it began to cover the budget deficit by printing money, and in order to prevent a rise in prices, it began to control prices of goods and services. This led initially to higher prices and a serious shortage, and a little later to the disappearance of goods from store shelves. There was a "black market". Government activities have led to serious economic difficulties.

The crisis of 1972-1973

In 1971-1973 marked by a continuous increase in crisis trends in political life and the economy of Chile. The sabotage at large industrial enterprises, the withdrawal of financial resources from the country forced the government to resort to accelerated nationalization of banks and large mining companies. However, this failed to prevent hyperinflation, shortages of goods and food. Lines for groceries lined up in the streets of Santiago; the government resorted to arranging distributive supply for the townspeople. Peasants who were endowed with land during the agrarian reform were assigned crop quotas, which were handed over to the government agency at fixed prices.

On July 11, 1971, Congress unanimously adopted a bill prepared by the government - an amendment to the Constitution on the complete nationalization of the copper industry (there was a national consensus on this issue and state ownership in this industry was maintained under Pinochet). The refusal of the Unity Government to pay compensation to U.S. mining companies that own nationalized copper mines has exacerbated relations with the U.S., which have lobbied for the embargo on Chilean copper, the seizure of Chile’s property abroad, and a credit boycott from banks and international financial institutions. In 1972, President Allende made a statement at a UN session stating that there was a campaign of economic strangulation against his country. With the consent of US President Nixon, the CIA developed the so-called. The September plan , which provided support for opposition groups of People’s Government.

In 1972 - 73 years. the country was swept by mass demonstrations and a wave of strikes, including a strike by freight carriers that paralyzed the economy. Far-right groups resorted to terror tactics. Their militants blew up the headquarters of left-wing, democratic and trade union organizations, robbed banks and killed unwanted people. The youth movement Homeland and Freedom (Patria y Libertad, PyL), together with the Navy, developed a plan for disorganizing power, including sabotage at infrastructure facilities - bridges, oil pipelines, power lines; in June 1973, PyL members participated in El Tancazo (Spanish: “Tank Coup”) - a coup attempt undertaken by Colonel Roberto Super. Military leaders loyal to Allende were obstructed ^[5] .

The legislative initiatives of the Allende government were blocked by a parliamentary majority that did not belong to People's Unity. Parliamentary elections in March 1973 confirmed the trend towards polarization of society - the Popular Unity bloc received 43.7% of the vote for candidates for the Chamber of Deputies , the opposition Confederation for Democracy, which included the Christian Democratic Party, the National Party and several other parties - 56%. On May 26, 1973, the Supreme Court accused the Allende regime of destroying the rule of law in the country. On August 22, 1973, the National Congress adopted the “House Agreement,” a resolution that outlawed the government and accused Allende of violating the constitution. In fact, the “Agreement” called on the armed forces to disobey the authorities until they “took the path of legality”. The opposition did not have 2/3 of the votes necessary to remove Allende from power.

In the context of the acute domestic political crisis, Salvador Allende hesitated between the plebiscite's announcement of trust and pressure from radical elements demanding accelerated reforms, discussing projects for the complete expropriation of capitalist property, the establishment of so-called popular justice and the formation of a democratic army.

September 11, 1973 military coup

The top military circles of Chile, with the support of the CIA, decided to use the crisis to eliminate the current government through a coup. The commander of the armed forces, General Augusto Pinochet, put forward the slogan "I or chaos."

The military coup began on September 11, 1973 at 7.00 in the morning by the capture of the port of Valparaiso by the naval forces. At 8.30 in the morning, the military announced the establishment of control over Chile and the deposition of the president. By 9 a.m., only the presidential palace of La Moneda remained under the control of Allende's supporters. President Allende four times rejected the proposal to abandon the leadership of the country without bloodshed and with the so-called "provision of security guarantees." An appeal was sent to Allende via Radio Portales with the words: “I declare that I will not leave my post and that I am ready to defend the power given to me by the working people with my life!”

A statement by the coup leaders of September 11, 1973 read:

... the armed forces are demanding ...

• The President of the Republic (Allende) immediately transfers his authority to the Chilean armed forces.
• The Chilean armed forces are united in their determination to take on a responsible historical mission and to wage a struggle to free the fatherland from Marxist convictions.
• Chilean workers should not be afraid that the country's economic and social welfare, which has been achieved to date, will change significantly.
• The press, radio and television must immediately stop the dissemination of information, otherwise they will be attacked either from land or from the air.
• The population of Santiago de Chile must remain in their homes so that innocent people do not shed blood.

General Augusto Pinochet ...

During the ensuing assault on the palace of La Moneda, President Allende committed suicide (the fact of suicide was finally established after the exhumation of his remains in 2011, before that it was suggested that he could be killed) ^{[6] [7]} . Officially, the state of "state of siege " introduced for the coup was maintained for a month after September 11th. Over this period, over 30 thousand people were killed in Chile ^[8] (the source is extremely doubtful; an exhaustive list of those killed for political reasons during the entire Pinochet’s reign by all parties - that is, Pinochet’s opponents including - includes 2279 people according to the Rettig commission or 3200 person according to the commission of Valeh: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rettig_Report , http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valech_Report ).

Conflict with Argentina

In December 1978, there was a threat of war between Argentina and Chile. The “bone of contention” was the border dispute over the ownership of the islands of ( Spanish: Picton, Lennox, Nueva ) in the Beagle Channel and the area of ​​maritime jurisdiction associated with these islands. The islands are strategically located on the southern side of Tierra del Fuego and in the Beagle Channel, although perhaps the countries were no longer fighting for the territories themselves, but for the possession of oil , whose deposits are present in large numbers on the islands.

The first official Argentine demands for the transfer of islands to Argentina, which were always under Chilean control, were put forward as early as 1904. The conflict went through several phases: since 1881 - the Chilean islands; since 1904, the disputed islands; direct negotiations submitted to a binding international tribunal; direct negotiations again; brinkmanship.

The conflict was resolved through the mediation of the Pope , and in 1984 Argentina recognized the islands as Chilean territory. The 1984 agreement also resolves several related very important issues, including navigation rights, sovereignty over other islands in the archipelago, the definition of the borders of the Strait of Magellan and the sea borders in the south - Cape Horn and beyond. On May 2, 1985, a border agreement was signed, according to which all three islands became part of Chile.

Transition to Democracy

In September 1973, as a result of a military rebellion, the government was overthrown. A military junta came to power, led by Army Commander General A. Pinochet Ugarte. The junta suspended the constitution, dissolved the national congress, banned the activities of political parties and mass organizations. She launched terror against political opponents. Repression, illegal imprisonment and torture of innocent people and political opponents continued throughout the entire period of Pinochet’s reign ^{[9] [10]} . The junta canceled many of the changes made by President Allende, returned the land to the latifundists, enterprises to their former owners, paid compensation to foreign companies , etc. Diplomatic relations with the USSR and other socialist countries were broken. In December 1974, A. Pinochet was proclaimed president of Chile.

The junta's economic policy was based on consistent neoliberalism: privatization, price liberalization, investment promotion, and the attraction of foreign capital. Some measures - primarily the privatization of the pension system - were unprecedented. This contributed to economic growth (the expression “Chilean miracle” appeared) ^[11]

In 1988, the KDP, the Socialist Party, the Party for Democracy, the Radical Party, and several others created the center-left coalition of parties for democracy (KPD, Concertación de Partidos por la Democracia), whose candidates won all subsequent presidential elections except 2010.

The Presidency of Patricio Aylvin (1990-1994)

In the first after the dismantling of the dictatorship of the presidential election, Christian Democrat Patricio Aylvin defeated the junta's favorite, Minister of Finance in 1985-89, Hernan Buchi . Interestingly, Ailvin was a tough opponent of Allende at one time and even justified military intervention in politics.

Truth Commission

As in many other countries in Latin America, such as El Salvador, Guatemala, Peru, a “Truth and Reconciliation Commission” was established in Chile. In 1993, she completed her work and published the results. ^[12]

The Presidency of Eduardo Frey (1994-2000)

KPD candidate EDP Chairman Eduardo Frey Ruiz-Tagle (son of Eduardo Frey Montalv ) was elected President of Chile in 1993, gaining 58% of the vote.

Ricardo Lagos Presidency (2000-2006)

In 1999, Socialist Ricardo Lagos , who won this right in the fight against Christian Democrat Andres Zaldivar, became a candidate from the Coalition of Parties for Democracy. During the first round of elections, not a single candidate won the necessary 50% of the vote; during the repeat elections in January 2000, Lagos defeated his rival Joaquin Lavigne Infante (candidate from the “right”), gaining 51.3% of the vote, and became the second after Allende President of Chile from the Socialist Party.

Torture Investigation Commission

On November 30, 2004, the Chilean State Commission for Political Prisoners and Torture (Comisión Nacional sobre Prisión Politíca y Tortura) published a report (the so-called Valeč Report) on the heinous crimes of the Pinochet regime, which highlighted the aspect of the regime’s existence, which in its report the Rettig commission earlier investigated the issue, namely torture. The report confirms information that people suspected by the regime of involvement in the “left” movements or the opposition as a whole were abducted by the police, tortured and killed. The report also confirms that such actions took place regularly, were no exception, and all armed groups and secret services were involved in torture. The methods of torture were constantly improved. One of the high-ranking officials in the power structures - the commander-in-chief of the army, General Juan Emilio Ceyre - confirmed the systematic guilt of the army in participating in torture.

Constitutional Reform

In 2005, a voluminous constitutional reform was carried out, eliminating undemocratic elements and also numerous privileges to the military.

2006 Presidential Election

After the first round of the presidential election in December 2005, not a single candidate was able to gain the necessary absolute majority of votes. On January 15, 2006, during the second round of elections, socialist Michelle Bachelet , a candidate for efficiency, defeated Sebastian Pinhera , candidate for the center-right Alliance for Chile , gaining 53.5% of the vote and becoming the first woman president of Chile.

2010 Presidential Election

In the second round of the presidential election , held on January 17, 2010, Sebastian Pinhera, the candidate from the center-right Alliance for Chile, won the candidate from the Christian Democrats, former president Eduardo Frey Ruiz-Tagle, who won the most votes. 51.61 percent of voters voted for Sebastian Pinier, and 48.38 percent for the candidate for efficiency. During the election campaign, both candidates showed extraordinary courtesy and courtesy, constantly exchanging compliments and courtesies.

Chile Earthquake (2010)

On February 27, 2010, a powerful earthquake of magnitude 8.8 occurred off the coast of Chile, with more than 800 victims, 1,200 missing, more than two million people left homeless. The amount of damage, according to various estimates, ranged from 15 to 30 billion dollars. Concepcion , one of the country's oldest cities, was especially badly damaged, near which the epicenter of the earthquake was located.

• Cand. East. n N.N. Platoshkin. US Subversive Activities Against Chile - Autumn 1970 // Military History Journal, No. 1, 2011. pp. 46-51
• A Brief History of Chile
• Chile History in Dates
• History of Chile and Easter Island
• Salvador Allende "Last appeal to the Chilean people"
• Lisandro Otero “Reason and Power: Chile. Three years of National Unity ”
• From the materials of the First International Public Tribunal over the Chilean junta // Tragedy of Chile. Materials and documents. - M .: Publishing house of political literature; Publishing House Printing News Agency, 1974.