Korova - female domestic bull ( Latin Bos taurus taurus ), domesticated subspecies of wild bull ( Bos taurus ), hoofed ruminant animal of the subfamily Bulls (Bovinae) ; wider - the female of any cattle species.
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Divorced for meat , milk and skin . The males of the species are called bulls , the young - calves and heifers , neutered males - oxen . Young (before the first pregnancy) females are called chicks. A nest is a productively inseminated (pregnant) chick. Pregnancy lasts 9 months. There are meat, meat, dairy and dairy breeds of cows.
Systematics
List of Subspecies
According to the taxonomic and geographical reference book “ Species of mammals of the world ” of March 9, 2011, the following subspecies exist [1] :
- Bos taurus taurus - Cow
- Bos taurus indicus - Zebu
- Bos taurus primigenius - Tour
The origin and history of domestication
The ancestor of domestic cows was a wild bull , in particular its subspecies extinct in the wild - a tour .
Cattle, and in particular cows, play a prominent role in human history. The domestication of cows began during the early Neolithic period - after the domestication of goats , sheep and pigs . It occurred in the Altai - India - Western Asia triangle; while in the Front and Central Asia domestication served as a tour, and in the territory of Hindustan and adjacent areas - zebu . The genetic studies carried out in 1994 showed that modern cows do not belong, as was long believed, of one clan line. Perhaps a complete transcript of the cow's genome, completed in 2009, will complement our knowledge on this issue [2] [3] .
The species has 30 pairs of chromosomes. Most central and northern European tours have mitochondrial haplogroup P, whereas in northern and middle European cattle haplogroup P is almost completely absent, and the mitochondrial macrogaplogroup T dominates, phylogenetically closer to Q, P and R than to I. two modern representatives of cattle. The mitochondrial haplogroup Q originated in the process of domestication in the Middle East and is close to the haplogroup T. The modern Italian cattle have a mitochondrial haplogroup R, which is far from the haplogroups P, Q and T, which can speak of ancient hybridization. Mitochondrial haplogroup I was detected in zebu. Mitochondrial haplogroup E was identified in several fossil specimens from Europe, but is absent in modern cattle. The domestic bull, who lived in China approx. 10.6 kyr ago, a mitochondrial haplogroup C was discovered that was not previously encountered by scientists [4] . European cattle have Y-chromosomal haplogroups Y1 and Y2. In the north of Europe, a Y-chromosomal haplogroup Y1 has been identified in cattle, which may indicate ancient hybridization [5] [6] [7] . The haplogroup Y2 predominates in samples of the Bronze and Iron Ages and in the Middle Ages. The proportion of haplogroup Y1 increased from the Middle Ages to the post-Middle Ages and further grew by the modern time. In the Baltic region, Y2 began to replace Y1 600 years ago. Substitution has accelerated in the last 200 years [8] .
The oldest known fossil remains of a domesticated cow are made at the early Neolithic settlements of in northern Syria and Chayonu-Tepesi in southeastern Turkey and belong to the VIII millennium BC. e. (Calibrated radiocarbon dates are 10,650 - 10,250 years ago for finds from the first of these settlements and about 10,200 years ago for the second). Molecular genetic analysis of these findings leads to the conclusion that all the livestock of current cows originated from 80 rounds tamed in these settlements [9] [10] . Neolithic inhabitants raised their cows for meat, milk, and hides; in addition, they were used as a force of magnitude. Cows were one of the ancient forms of wealth, and cattle theft - one of the earliest types of theft.
Zebu domestication took place independently and much later: the earliest fossil remains of a domesticated zebu were found in Mergarh , located in Pakistan’s Balochistan , and belong to the 1st half of the 5th millennium BC. e. [eleven]
The wild and first domesticated tours were used only for meat, but with the increasing dependence of people on agriculture, they began to be used mainly as labor force: for centuries the oxen served as the main beasts and in many countries remain them to this day.
In the early stages of domestication, all cattle were long-horned: this form spread from South-West Asia and from the Balkan Peninsula to Africa (about 7,000 years ago) and Central Europe (about 5,000 years ago). The first short-legged cattle is almost the same ancient: bones that are 7000 years old are found. Small short-legged animals of Western Europe became known as Celtic or Iberian cattle: they spread to North and West Africa and the rest of the European continent. Most modern European and American dairy, meat and dairy breeds are descendants of this particular Celtic cattle [12] .
Compared to the first domesticated, modern European breeds have become significantly smaller (over 3 thousand years the size of animals has decreased by about a third [13] ). This, presumably, is a consequence of the economic component of intensive livestock breeding: it became unprofitable for pastoralists to keep adults and a new generation of calves was increasingly born from only young animals that had reached puberty.
The emergence of rocks
Probably, the first attempts of a well-thought breeding were undertaken in ancient Rome . After several centuries, the UK , the Netherlands , France and Switzerland became the centers for improving cattle. On the basis of local herds, cattle breeders began to create cattle with certain traits. This is how breeds appeared, that is, genetically stable varieties resulting from artificial selection [12] .
There are more than 1080 breeds of cows in the world, as well as 121 breeds of zebu and 29 breeds of hybrid origin. As a rule, beef breeds that are contained in larger herds and require less maintenance than dairy cattle dominate in regions where vast areas of pasture are occupied, relatively few workers and soil and climatic conditions do not favor more intensive farming.
Anatomy
A cow is a large, massive animal whose average weight reaches 750 kg (can vary from 147 to 1363 kg) [14] , and the height at withers varies from 120 to 150 depending on the breed and individual [15] .
The teeth of the cows are adapted for chewing vegetable feed. Young cows have 20 (12 molars and 8 incisors in the lower jaw), and in adults there are 32 teeth (24 molars and 8 incisors). Canines are missing. Milk teeth are much smaller than molars, but identical in shape. The dental formula of an adult cow is as follows: {\ displaystyle I {0 \ over 4} C {0 \ over 0} P {3 \ over 3} M {3 \ over 3}} . Long, sharp, kospostavlennye and forward incisors are available only on the lower jaw. Two incisors located in the middle are called hooks, the adjacent two teeth on the right and left sides are called internal averages, the next two teeth on both sides are called external averages, and the two extreme incisors are called edges. [16] On the upper jaw at the site of incisors there is a gum ridge. The lower jaw is adapted to perform circular movements. Cows mow grass with incisors, and grind food with molars. Rough and mobile tongue is covered with papillae [17] . The muzzle of the cows is large and wide. The forehead is rather wide, flat, in the upper part it is sometimes covered with thick, curly hair. On the head of the cow there are 2 hollow horns, although there are also hornless (horny) cows. The height of the horns depends on the breed, and also varies individually. In general, the horns are directed upwards or sideways, their shape resembles a lyre . The ears are low, have the shape of a horn, the zebu has “earrings”. Outside, they are covered with fine short hair, and from the inside grows long hair. The eyes are large, spherical [17] .
Cows have a short massive neck. . The tail is long, thick, with a tassel at the end, located high in the recess between the bones of the pelvis. The back is slightly concave. The zebu on the back has a hump that starts right behind the neck. The pelvis stands out, the hips are massive and flat. In cows (females), in the groin area, an udder is located — the mammary gland, which is divided by a middle partition, which performs a supporting function, into the right and left halves. Each half consists of two quarters - anterior and posterior, or femoral. Each quarter consists of a nipple length from 5 to 10 cm and a diameter of 2-3 cm [17] , tanks and glandular parts. Milk is synthesized in the secretory epithelium of the smallest cavities - the alveoli . The body is covered with short hair of white, black, red or brown color of various shades. The color can be monotonous, piebald and striped. Like other cloven-hoofed cows, they walk on two fingers, covered with an overgrown horn, forming a hoof . Body temperature ranges from 38.2 ° C to 39.5 ° C, a normal heart rate of 50-60 beats per minute [18] .
Respiratory rate in cattle at rest (breaths per minute):
- Newborn calves - 50-75;
- Calves aged 2 weeks. - 45—56;
- Calves aged 2-3 months. - 35-40;
- Calves - 27-30;
- Animals over 1 year old - 18-28;
- Bulls and oxen - 10-30 [19] .
Reproductive organs
Bull
The genitals of the bull are represented by paired organs: testes (testicles) with appendages, seed tubes and spermatic cords, accessory sex glands and unpaired organs: the scrotum, urogenital canal, penis and prepuce. Seed plant - the main sexual paired organ of males, in which the development and maturation of sperm. It is also an endocrine gland and produces male sex hormones. In bulls, the testis is 12–15 cm long, 6–7 cm thick, and weighs about 300 g. Bulls produce 3–6 ml of sperm, 1 cm³ of which contains up to 2 million sperms [19] . Initially, in the calves, the testes are located in the abdominal cavity, and as they mature, they move into the scrotum [20] . The temperature in the scrotum is lower than in the abdominal cavity, which favors the development of sperm [19] . The length of the penis in the erect state reaches 150 cm. In a bull, the penis is cylindrical in shape, with some point at the end. In the crotch area in the course of the penis forms an S-shaped bend. From the bend of the penis to its root stretch 2 muscles (ligaments), retracting the penis in the prepuce [21] .
Cow
Genital organs of females are divided into external and internal. The first include the labia, vestibule and clitoris, the second - the vagina, uterus, oviducts and ovaries. [22]
In cows, ovaries weighing 14-19 g are located at the level of the last lumbar vertebra, the sacrum hillock of the ilium [19] , 40 cm from the vagina [20] . In infertile cows and heifers, the ovaries are usually located behind the kidneys, 2-4 cm from the end of the horns of the uterus. During pregnancy, the ovaries under the weight of the fetus descend into the abdominal cavity. In cows, the right ovary is often larger than the left, and in newborn calves the other way around [21] . The fallopian tube, or egg conduit, is a narrow, highly crimped tube, 21-28 cm long, connected to the uterine horn. It serves as a fertilization site for the egg and leads the fertilized egg to the uterus. The uterus is a hollow membranous organ in which the fetus develops. In the uterus of sperm live from 55 to 70 hours. In cows, the uterus is two-horned. The length of the horn of the uterus is 16-18 cm, the width is 2-3 cm. The wall thickness of the uterus in an adult chick is 4-5 mm, in a multiplying neztelnoy cow up to 8 mm, in a pregnant, 2-5 mm The weight of a uterus of a non-pregnant cow is from 400 to 700 g, at the end of pregnancy without a fetus and fetal waters 6-10 kg. On the mucosa of each horn, and often the body of the uterus can be seen caruncles, or uterine warts, barely visible in the heifers, which are the rudiments of placentas. According to the size of the caruncle, a specialist can establish a pregnancy through the rectum and determine its terms [21] . The vagina is a tube with a length of 20-28 cm, which serves as the organ of copulation. It is located between the cervix and the urogenital opening [19] [21] .
Digestive System
Eaten food moves from the mouth through the throat and esophagus into the stomach. In addition, the esophagus serves to release the enzymatic gases generated in the rumen. Cattle have only lower front teeth. The mouth is well adapted to plucking grass, but the food chews very little while eating. Dairy cows produce 100–200 liters of saliva per day. The drier and rougher the feed, the more saliva is secreted. Cow saliva, unlike the saliva of most monogastric animals, does not contain any digestive enzymes . It moisturizes the feed, making it easier to swallow, and smoothes the acidity of the rumen, being a buffer for the acids coming from the feed and forming volatile fatty acids in the rumen [23] .
A cow, like other ruminants, has a complex stomach consisting of four sections: a rumen , a grid , a book and an abomasum . The cicatrix, net and book are called foregutts. The task of predzhaludkov is the accumulation of food, delaying them for splitting by microbes, digestion of food and absorption of degradation products [23] . A cow when eating can swallow up to one and a half centners of feed, which falls into the rumen. In the rumen is a large number of microorganisms. They secrete enzymes that can break down fiber and other substances. When chewing gum, portions of the food are regurgitated by animals into the oral cavity, carefully chewed and returned to the rumen [24] . Lack of gum is a sign of disease. In calves, the ruminant process appears at the 3rd week of life. In cows, the gum comes 30–70 minutes after the end of the feed intake and lasts 40–50 minutes, after which there is a pause. There are usually 6–8 ruminant periods per day [19] .
The rumen and the grid functionally form a whole, and often they are called in one word - the rumen grid. The scar capacity of an adult cow is about 100–200 liters [25] . This is about 80% of the total stomach volume. The scar fills the left side of the abdomen of the cow. The grid is the smallest of the foregloves, its volume is 4-10 liters. It received its name from its reticular inner surface, reminiscent of honeycombs, in which foreign objects are trapped in the stomachs [23] . Fiber particles can be in the rumen from 20 to 48 hours [25] . As a result of microbial activity, gases form in the rumen, the volume of which can reach 30-50 liters per hour. They are removed with belching through the esophagus [23] .
The 3rd stomach is a book full of thin films, "sheets." Through the sheets, which repeatedly increase the area of the stomach, liquid is absorbed from the feed. The volume of the book is 10-20 liters. In the book feed mass is on average 5 hours. During this time, it becomes semi-solid, it increases the dry matter content to 22-24% [23] .
Rennet corresponds to the monogastric stomach. It secretes digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid, which digest food. Due to hydrochloric acid, the rennet content is very acidic, pH 1-3. Acidity completely stops the activity of microbes and changes the composition of certain nutrients, improving digestibility. In terms of abomasum smaller books, the cow is 5-15 liters. In the abomasal forage is not long, from one to two hours [23] .
The absolute length of the entire intestine in cattle reaches 39–63 m (an average of 51 m). The ratio of the length of the body of the animal and the length of the intestine is 1:20. There are thin and thick intestine [19] .
The thin section of the intestine starts from the stomach and is divided into the duodenum 90–120 cm long, the bile ducts and pancreatic ducts exit into it; the jejunum 35–38 m long, suspended as a set of loops on the extensive mesentery ) and ileum 1 m long. In cows, the small intestine is localized in the right hypochondrium and extends to the level of the 4th lumbar vertebra. The pancreas also lies in the right hypochondrium and secretes several liters of pancreatic secretion per day. The liver with a gall bladder in cattle is located in the right hypochondrium. The mass of the liver varies from 1.1 to 1.4% of the body weight of cattle [19] .
The large intestine is represented by the blind , colon and rectum . The cecum is a short blunt tube with a length of 30-70 cm, lying in the upper right half of the abdominal cavity. The colon is a short intestine with a length of 6-9 m. The rectum lies at the level of the 4th-5th sacral vertebra in the pelvic cavity, has a powerful muscular structure and ends at the anal canal with the anus . In the large intestine, splitting and absorption of 15–20% of fiber occurs [19] .
Food passes through the digestive tract within 2-3 days, and fiber - up to 12 days. The speed of passage of the feed mass through the digestive tract is 17.7 cm per hour or 4.2 m per day. During the day, cattle need to drink 25-40 liters of water when feeding with green mass, and 50-80 liters when feeding with dry feed. Normally, feces stand 15-45 kg per day, they have a pasty consistency and dark brown color. The percentage of water content in normal faeces is 75–85% [19] .
Excretory system
The urinary organs include paired kidneys and ureters , unpaired bladder and urethra . In the main organs - the kidneys - urine is constantly formed, which is excreted through the ureter into the bladder and, as it is filled, is excreted through the urethra. In males, this channel also conducts sex products and is therefore called urinogenital. In females, the urethra opens on the eve of the vagina. In cattle, the weight of the kidneys reaches 1-1.4 kg. During the day, adult cows produce 6–20 l of urine with a weakly alkaline reaction (6.0–8.7 depending on the composition of the feed) [19] .
Perception organs
Cows have lateral monocular and central binocular color vision. The horizontally elongated pupil provides a panoramic field of view. Cows see 330 ° around their axis - without turning their heads, they are not able to see what is behind them. In addition, a blind spot is available at a distance of from 0 to 20 cm to the tip of the muzzle. The binocular vision zone is located directly in front of the animal and allows it to assess the terrain and distance. Cows clearly see the grass in front of them, but do not distinguish distant parts. They respond better to the smallest movements. To adapt to the change of lighting they need time. They are considered to distinguish shades of red better and see green, gray or blue worse [26] .
Due to the nature of the structure of their ear, cows have a sharp ear. They are able to differentiate tones that are close in timbre as well as high-frequency sounds (up to 35,000 Hz ). Their moving ears turn to better locate the source of the sound. Some noises can plunge animals into panic [26] .
They have a well-developed sense of smell: cows smell ammonia at a dilution of 1: 100,000. They capture both ordinary odors and pheromones well , using their vomeronasal organ . Bulls, sniffing, can demonstrate a characteristic movement - the flemish . A certain smell, like sound, can cause stress in animals [26] .
Taste is also developed: cows have over 25,000 taste buds . Cows distinguish the following tastes, listed by preference: sweet, bitter, salty and sour [26] .
Cows have pain and thermal sensitivity. The most sensitive areas are covered with thin skin: cheeks, neck, throat, base of the neck, inner surface of the thighs, nipples and vulva. A large number of pain receptors are concentrated inside the nostrils and at the base of the horns. Thermoreception allows cows to assess the ambient temperature, humidity and wind speed [26] .
Compared to humans, cows are more sensitive to changes in the electric field. For example, they may be annoyed by a field created by a TV or radio [26] .
Biology and behavior
Cows are herd animals. Inside the herd there is a dominant hierarchy, which is established during the formation of a group through clashes between individuals. The established hierarchy no longer changes. Animals get used to their tribesmen, lick each other and stay nearby [15] . Sometimes a leader appears in a group without setting a hierarchy. Such a leader can initiate the movement of the whole herd, having a good sense of space and better remembering the surroundings. [27] .
In spite of the fact that submissiveness is valued in domestic animals, the aggressiveness of bulls and cows has found its specific use: it is used in the Spanish and Portuguese bullfights and in the Swiss .
Domestic cows communicate with each other with the help of smells and pheromones, they are able to recognize the individual of interest among a rather numerous herd. Their sense of smell allows them to also feel the emotions of their fellow tribesmen, especially if they are scared or excited. Postav head also serves as a means of communication. It expresses the basic attitude of the animal (submission, anxiety, readiness to flee or threaten) [15] . On average, cows graze one third of their time, one third chew the cud, and one third rest. [28]
Cows utter a moo or roar that can express suffering (for example, in the case of late milking), hunger, thirst, calf or tribesman appeal [17] .
Life Cycle and Breeding
Life expectancy of cows is about 20 years, rarely up to 35 years; bulls 15-20 years. The longest life in 48 years of the cow registered in 1993. The growth of animals continues up to 5 years, in some late-maturing breeds up to 6-7 years. Sexual maturity in chicks occurs approximately at the age of 7–9, and in calves 6–8 months [29] , although in some African breeds the animals become sexually mature at the age of 24 months [30] . The onset of puberty does not yet indicate the readiness of the organism to reproduce offspring; in cows, physiological maturity depends not on age, but on weight. Gobies and cows are considered to be physically mature when they reach a weight of 50–60% of the weight of an adult animal (3rd calving and older) characteristic of a given herd or breed. In order to avoid fertilization too early, bulls and calves are kept apart from each other from 5-6 months. In beef cattle, bulls and calves are kept separately immediately after weaning them from their mothers [31] . In the mating chicks allowed in 18-22 months, gobies - in 14-18 months. The duration of the service period (from calving to the first hunt) is about 3 weeks. Cows do not have a breeding season, they can breed throughout the year [32] .
Cows are polyether animals, their sexual cycle averages 21 days. It can be divided into 4 stages. The first stage, estrus or “hunting,” lasts about 12–18 hours, during this period the cow is ready for mating. The animal becomes agitated, sniffs kin, may try to saddle other cows, often mooes, runs away from the herd, eats poorly, drinks a lot; reduced milk yield; the outer part of the vagina reddens, mucus flows out of it, which becomes cloudy. A natural set is called a mating, and with the help of special tools - artificial insemination. The case is free and manual. With a free mating, manufacturing bulls reside with their wombs and may needlessly cover the same uterus several times during a hunt. In beef cattle, freestyle mating is used somewhat more widely than in dairy one. [33] . Ovulation occurs 10 to 15 hours after the end of the hunt [18] . The pregnant chick is usually called the pregnant, and from that moment it is called a heifers. 1.5-2 months before calving, a udder appears. Pregnancy lasts an average of 285 days. Cows are usually single-breed, twins are rare (about 2%); There are cases of birth at the same time 6-7 calves. Twins are more often fraternal (same-sex and opposite-sex). Most of the chicks of heterosexual twins are not capable of reproduction, apparently they look like gobies, they are called free-marts [34] . The weight of calves at birth, depending on the breeds, is 18–45 kg, sometimes up to 60 kg, the mass of gobies is 1-3 kg more.
From the moment of calving lactation begins. The first 7-10 days a cow gives colostrum. A mother feeds youngsters up to nine months (in meat breeds, as a rule, up to six to eight months), but weaning can be done at about three months of age, when he starts eating grass. The heifers do not give milk: they must first give birth to a calf. After calving, lactation lasts approximately 11 months, subject to breastfeeding with suckling or regular milking [34] . After calving in 45-60 days, the cow must be inseminated again. 2 months before the expected calving, the cow is started, that is, it is no longer milked, it is called the dry period.
The castles, which have reached adulthood, that is, from about two years of age, are called oxen. Males are castrated to reduce their aggressiveness in the herd or when used as pack and draft animals [34] .
Human Impact on Cow Breeding
In addition to the free mating, there is a manual mating method, in which the manufacturing bulls are kept separately from cows and heifers and are allowed only to those of them who have sex hunting. The case is carried out in a special machine, on the side racks of which the bull rests with its forelimbs during the landing, therefore the weight of the bull falls not on the cow (heifer), but on the machine. The annual load on one bull with a uniform year-round mating is 150-200 cows. When determining the load, the age of the bull must be considered. Adult bulls can do no more than two cages per day, bulls 1.5 years old - one per week and bulls 1.5-2.5 years old - no more than 2-3 cages per week [33] .
However, the most effective way of mass improvement of livestock, allowing the widespread use of the most valuable manufacturing bulls, is artificial insemination . This method came into practice in the 1940s. Artificial insemination is most beneficial for the cow and further productivity. In artificial insemination, the semen of the most valuable breeding sires is used, the possibility of infection of the cow by diseases is completely ruled out [33] . In one cage, a bull produces 4–5 cm³ of seed, enough to inseminate 15–20 cows. In a year, 1,500–2,000 cows can be inseminated with the seed of one bull. Cows are inseminated by vaginal, cervical and uterine methods. [29] . In contrast to dairy farms, where artificial insemination is performed year-round, animals are inseminated in meat cattle breeding seasonally and in most farms during the summer period [35] .
In addition to artificial insemination when breeding cows practice embryo transplantation . Extracted embryos can be stored frozen in liquid nitrogen for a long time. With proper biotechnology, the survival rate of embryos during transplantation reaches 90%, and the pregnancy of recipient cows after a non-surgical transplant is in the range of 50-55%. They practice the transplantation of two embryos to one recipient cow at the same time [36] .
In addition, cows are cloned. There are two types of cloning . Cloning of cattle embryos has been practiced since the mid 80s. [37] . This method is interesting because it allows to obtain genetically identical animals. The second method consists in cloning an animal on the basis of a somatic cell of a living donor. For the first time such method in 1998 at the cloned a cow named Margaret [38] .
Feeding
The basis of the diet of cattle are vegetable feed. Features of anatomical structure allow cows to digest coarse, juicy and grain feed. Rough feeds include those that contain a lot of fiber due to the small amount of moisture ( hay , branch feed, straw ). Succulent feeds are those that contain a lot of moisture ( silage , grass, beets ). Grain feeds are highly nutritious, they are also called concentrated ( meal , cake , granulated feed, grain). There are bulk (with a small number of concentrates), low concentrate and concentrate feeding types. The most optimal type of feeding for cattle with a large proportion (up to 70%) in the diet of bulk (coarse and juicy) feed. The rest of the diet consists of concentrated feed and various additives [31] .
For good productivity of livestock, it is necessary to include in the diet of animal feed ( bone meal , meat and bone meal, minerals, salt, vitamins A, D, E1, B1, B2, B4, B5, B12).
In the pasture, cows willingly eat English ryegrass , Italian ryegrass , hedgehog , fescue , bluegrass , foxtail , timothy , and legumes , for example, white and red clover , wedding , and alfalfa , rich in nitrogen [39] . However, eating some herbs, such as wormwood , colza , certain types of dried flowers and onions, gives the milk an unpleasant smell and taste [40] .
During the stall period, cows are fed with fodder and concentrates. Good hay - a source of high-grade protein and carotene. Grain-bean and especially legume hay is rich in calcium , and sun-dried hay is rich in vitamin D. Silage is a nutritious and cheap milk fodder. Nutrients of green fodder in a silo are stored more completely than during drying. Some manufacturers of cheeses that have a certificate of authenticity of origin , for example, Gruyere and Emmental , do not use milk from cows that feed on silage, because it contains a lot of butyric acid bacteria Clostridium tyrobutyricum , which negatively affects the quality of cheese [41] . When feeding cows, hay, silage and root crops can be completely replaced by haylage , and they are introduced into cattle rations as the sole source of bulky food. Sometimes cows are fed with straw , but there is a lot of indigestible lignin and few nutrients. To improve the digestion, the straw is slightly crushed (the gum is broken from the finely chopped straw in cows) and steamed with water or brine (80-100 liters per 1 centner of straw). Steam is passed through moistened cutting for 1 hour. Parboiled straw is flavored with concentrates and distributed to animals in a warm form [31] .
In addition to traditional feeds, nutrient-rich concentrated feeds are used to increase the yield and accelerate growth in modern animal husbandry. First of all, it is a grain that provides the body with energy: wheat , triticale , barley , oats , millet , sorghum and maize . Cows are happy to eat root vegetables, for example, beets, rich in soluble sugars, potatoes and cassava, in which a lot of starch . Molasses, sugar beet pulp are often added to food, [42] . The source of protein for cows is cake and sunflower meal, rapeseed , flaxseed and soybean , bran , brewer's and bread yeast .
In addition to coarse, succulent and other locally produced feeds, the cows are provided with complete nutrition, a feed containing all the nutrients needed by the animal and able to satisfy its needs without adding other feeds, in order to fill in the missing nutrients. Among feed additives, mention should be made of carbamide ( urea ), chalk , sapropel , wood ash , salt, precipitate , bone and meat and bone meal, water extract of superphosphate, iodized salt, chloride, magnesium, sulfur, copper, manganese, and other feedable substances. cattle. With the same purpose, salt briquettes are prepared, which contain various microelements . To enrich the diets of cows with vitamins, they use fish oil , rich in vitamins A and D, vitamin preparations produced by industry (carotene, vitamins A, D, E, B2, B3, etc.), which are fed in accordance with factory recommendations. As vitamin supplements used grass meal, pine needles , twig food. For dietary and prophylactic purposes, calves are fed with acidophilic sour milk, hay brew, oatmeal and flax jelly [31] .
Diseases of cows
Microbial diseases
Bacteria cause a wide range of diseases in cows, for example, infectious enterotoxemia , colibacteriosis , salmonellosis , pasteurellosis , brucellosis , infectious keratitis . The most dangerous are mycobacteria , which cause diseases such as tuberculosis and paratuberculosis in cows .
Viruses cause cattle infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, cattle plague . Calves have diarrhea caused by rotavirus and coronavirus . Bovine viral diarrhea causes diarrhea and abortion. Viral herpes and papillomas may appear on the udder. Some diseases cause significant damage to livestock, such as rabies and foot and mouth disease . Rift Valley fever is transmitted from animals to humans. Rickettsia and mycoplasma cause cows chlamydia , Q fever and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia , which can provoke abortions. Spongiform encephalopathy in cattle caused a that spread to Europe in the early 1990s. Some diseases are transmitted from cows to humans. These are listeriosis , tetanus , botulism , leptospirosis , erisipeloid , anthrax , Q fever, rabies and streptoderma. Spongiform encephalopathy in cattle in humans causes Kreuzfeldt-Jakob disease [43] .
Invasive Diseases
Among ectoparasites affecting cattle, mention should be made of sarcoptoid and demodectic ticks , which can transmit the causative agents of brucellosis , pyroplasmosis , and cause demodicosis and psoroptosis of ruminants. Cattle suffer from entomoses , which are caused by hypodermic gadflies (parasitic in the larval stage), real and blue-green flies (transmit the infection), horsefly , midges , mokrets , mosquitoes , blood - sucking flies (edemas, dermatitis, carriers of the infection), and fleas [19] .
Cows suffer from a wide range of helminthiasis. Infection occurs alimentary and in utero. Worm invasions can be caused by trematodes , tapeworms and roundworms .
Eating Disorders
The most common diseases of cattle resulting from feeding disturbances are gastrointestinal: esophageal blockage , tympania , anterior atrium , diarrhea. Violation of the microflora of the rumen, associated with eating a large amount of feed with a high content of easily digestible carbohydrates can lead to acidosis , a disease accompanied by an increase in acidity in the rumen. When alkalosis is associated with overeating protein-rich or spoiled food, acidity, on the contrary, decreases. Alkalosis sometimes causes gum to stop, which in turn provokes flatulence [43] . Long-term feeding of coarse-fed food, grazing on silted grass after a fall in water, eating finely chopped feed and polluted root crops can lead to blockage of the book . Eating inedible items can cause traumatic reticulitis . Overeating of light- fermenting feeds causes the scar to timpanin . Inadequate feeding of cows or newly sheltered cows, leading to the inferiority of colostrum, causes calves' dyspepsia in calves in the first 10 days of life.
Genetic Abnormalities
Cows currently have up to 400 genetic abnormalities. Some breeds were bred during the study of genetic abnormalities. In particular, they have genetically blocked the action of myostatin , which leads to hypertrophied development of muscles. The frequency of a similar anomaly in cows of , (100%) and (30%) breeds is high. Often, cows with a similar anomaly experience difficulties in calving and have to resort to a cesarean section.
Some breeds of cows were initially devoid of horns, such as, for example, animals of the Aberdeen-Angus breed . Sometimes this genetic abnormality is artificially maintained due to ease of handling. However, there are harmful abnormalities, such as a deficiency in the activity of uridine phosphate syntheses, a deficiency in leukocyte adhesion (BLAD), which causes granulocyte syndrome and a complex of spinal abnormalities (CVM). The last two anomalies are often found in cows of the Primgolshta breed and are fatal, as is the genetically determined deformity of the palate in Sharolese breed cows. [44] .
Excessive use of the same producers, which has become possible due to artificial insemination, leads to an increase in consanguinity within certain breeds and increases the risk of spreading genetic diseases, as evidenced by numerous examples of primgolshtinskaya animals.
Other non-communicable diseases
Such diseases of cows as mastitis and endometritis cause significant damage to animal husbandry. Vitamin D deficiency in calves and phosphorus-calcium metabolism disorders cause deep disturbances in bone formation processes (osteogenesis) and growth retardation with architis. Of the diseases of skin derivatives in cattle, hoof diseases are most common. Horn fractures can also occur [19] .
Economic value
The cow in the peasant family has long embodied wealth and wealth, the Russian peasants often called her a wet-nurse. To lose a cow, especially in lean years, was equivalent to a catastrophe for the peasants. Therefore, the peasants always greatly respected the cow, protected it in every way, cared for, treated it affectionately [45] . Breeding cows engaged in livestock , the prevailing livestock industry. Cows carry out three main economic tasks - they give meat, milk and serve as a force of oppression. It is estimated that they now account for approx. 50% of the meat produced in the world and about 95% of milk; as a labor, cattle have lost their importance in industrialized countries, but retain it in the underdeveloped regions of Asia and Africa [12] .
The USA is the main producer of beef in the world and at the same time its main consumer: about a quarter of all its world production is used here. India, despite the huge livestock of cattle, produces relatively little beef due to religious prohibitions and cultural traditions; here, cattle mainly produce milk and are used as labor. Another recognized beef exporter is Australia. In the northern part of Australia, experiments are being conducted on the crossing of humpless breeds with zebuvidnymi, in particular the American Brahmanian, Pakistani zebu and South African sledge (Africanus). In Western Europe, the main producers (and consumers) of beef are Germany and France [12] .
Waste of a cow, manure , is used as a good fertilizer.
In 2009, the cow's genome was deciphered [2] , which will allow improving and accelerating breeding with the properties required for agriculture.
Hybrids
- Hajnak is a hybrid of yak and cow.
- is a hybrid of a cow and a bison .
- Bifalo is a hybrid of a cow and an American bison .
- is a Nepali hybrid of a cow, zebu and yak . Does not have a hump.
- is a hybrid of yak and zebu.
Cow Cult
In India, since ancient times, the cow is considered a sacred animal, the embodiment of the Great Mother Aditi and the earth, and sometimes even the entire Universe. The Vedas associate them with the sun and the sun, calling them mothers who rule over the triple nature of the world. The cow is protected by the universal laws and Vishnu (the Supreme Personality of Godhead) personally, it is believed that the killer of a cow will go to hell : "Killers of cows are destined to rot in hell for as many years as there were hairs on the body of the cow" [46]
In the mythology of various peoples, the cow performs a cosmic function: among the Egyptians, the heavenly cow, Nut , which gave birth to the sky, personified the Heavenly Ocean . In Memphis, she acted as a symbol of a passive generating force, the embodiment of Venus . It is a cow on the advice of the oracle that the legendary Cadmus leads to the place where Thebes will be founded.
The pregnant cow is considered to be the female symbol of the life-giving and nourishing power of the earth, and together with the bull they represent the symbol of the deity - female and male, generating and feeding. For example, in ancient Greece, a cow was often depicted with a calf sucking the udder, which meant multiplying the divine power that feeds itself.
The holiness of a cow in India is so well known (in particular, there is a movement of “ cow defenders ”, which often takes on extremist forms) that there is even the expression “ sacred cow ” - something inviolable, holy, that it is necessary to guard against any encroachment. For example, for a person a “sacred cow” may be a science in which he believes and for which he tries, or the religion he professes.
Reflection in culture and art
- In heraldry, a cow is depicted as walking and called crowned ( fr. Couronnée ), if she has a crown on her head, with bells ( fr. Clarinnée ), if the bell is hanging on her neck, horned ( fr. Accornée ) and with hooves ( onglée) , if these parts of her body differ in color from the whole body.
- Since 1998, an art event called Cow Parade has been held in the world.
- The following surnames are associated with cows: Korovyak , Khudobyak , Bykov , Korovin , Bykovets , Korovinsky , Korovnikov and Korovkin .
- In some CIS countries produced candy "Cow" .
- " Bulls and cows " - a logical game.
Humor, proverbs, sayings
- The proverb "Without posture - horse - cow" about the fact that you need to behave and look like a proper way [47] .
- The proverb “Whose cow would moan, but yours would be silent” expresses doubt in the moral right of the interlocutor to discuss this issue [48] .
- The proverb “A god does not give a horn to a cow,” says that a person who could cause trouble is not given such an opportunity [49] .
- The proverb “A cow in the yard, a grub on the table” reflects the fact that in a peasant farm a cow was a source of wealth [47] .
- The proverb “Milk by a cow on a tongue” says that in order to get a result, you must first make certain investments (for a cow to give a lot of milk it needs to be well fed) [47] .
- The proverb “To drive to cattle - to walk without open mouth” says that if you are engaged in work, there is no time to idle [47] .
- The proverb "The smooth skin of a cattle is not a hand, but a flour" says that instead of wasting energy on a useless exercise, it is better to do something really necessary [47] .
- The proverb “They say that chickens are milked and cows carry eggs” that they should not believe everything they say [50] .
- The proverb “Flea with a horse, and louse with a cow” is about a deceiver, an inventor [51] .
- The patter "Brother Arkady slaughtered a borax cow in the mountains of Ararat" [47] .
Symbols
- The bull is also depicted on the Lamborghini badge.
- The symbol of FC Krasnodar is a black bull. As a result, the team received the corresponding nickname.
- The legendary US basketball club Chicago Bulls also uses the image of the bull in its symbolism.
- "Bulls" - the players on the rise in the stock market.
See also
- Tour (primitive bull)
- Cattle
- Zebu - Indian Cows
- Holy cow
- Wild bull
- Fighting bull
- Vatussi
- Beef
- Taurus (zodiac sign)
- Breeds of domestic bulls
- Ox
Notes
- ↑ Taxon browser . Mammal Species of the World. The appeal date is April 23, 2013. Archived April 28, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 Cow genome will accelerate the evolution of agriculture , April 27, 2009
- ↑ The Genome Sequence of Taurine Cattle: A Window to Ruminant Biology and Evolution , 24 Apr 2009
- ↑ Zhang H., Paijmans JL, Chang F. et al. Holocene cattle management in northeastern China // Nature Communications, 4, 2013. No. 2755.
- ↑ Ceiridwen J. Edwards, Ruth Bollongino et al. Mitochondrial analysis of the domestic aurochs for cattle and animals, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 274 (2007), pp. 1377–1385.
- ↑ Anders Götherström et al. It was followed by hybridization with aurochs bulls in Europe, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 272 (2005), pp. 2345–2350.
- ↑ Stephen DE Park et al. Genome sequencing of Eurasian wild aurochs, Bos primigenius, illuminates , Genome Biology (2015) 16: 234.
- ↑ Temporal fluctuation in the North-East Baltic Sea region of the cattle population identified by mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal DNA analyzes , 2015
- ↑ Edwards C. J., Bollongino R., Scheu A. e. a. Mitochondrial analysis of the aurochs for domestic cattle and / or European Induction of Aurochs // Proc. of the royal society. B , 2007, 274 (1616). - P. 1377-1355. - DOI : 10.1098 / rspb.2007.0020 .
- Oll Bollongino R., Burger J., Powell A., Mashkour M., Vigne J.-D., Thomas M. G. Modern Taurine Cattle // Molecular Biology and Evolution , 2012, 29 (9 ). - P. 2101-2104. - DOI : 10.1093 / molbev / mss092 .
- ↑ Marshall F. B., Dobney K., Denham T., Capriles J.M. Proof . Nat. Acad. Sci. USA , 2013, 111 (17). - P. 6153-6158. - DOI : 10.1073 / pnas.1312984110 .
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Cattle . Encyclopedia Circle. The appeal date is April 23, 2013. Archived April 28, 2013.
- ↑ In the Neolithic, European cows were crushed
- ↑ Tanya Dewey. Bos taurus . University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. The appeal date is April 16, 2013. Archived April 17, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Christian Dudouet. La production des bovins allaitants. - La France Agricole, 2004. - p. 383. - ISBN 2855570913 .
- ↑ http://www.yariks.info/arhive.php?c=56&pc=95&m=343 . Choosing a cow // Newsletter. - State educational autonomous institution of the Yaroslavl region "Information and consulting service of the AIC", 2012. - Vol. 2
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Alain Raveneau. Le livre de la vache. - Paris, rustica, 1996. - ISBN 2-84038-136-2 .
- ↑ 1 2 Agricultural Encyclopedic Dictionary = Soviet Encyclopedia / Editor-in-Chief: V. K. Month. - M, 1989.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Dorosh M. Diseases of cattle. - ISBN 5-9533-1681-x .
- ↑ 1 2 Ch. Hanzen. Rappels anatomophysiologues relatifs à la reproduction du taureau Unp (2010). The appeal date is April 17, 2013. Archived April 19, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Popov LK, Smagin NP, Popova I.S. Morphology and physiology of the genital organs of males and females of farm animals: Guidelines for the discipline "Obstetrics, gynecology and reproductive biotechnology." - Methodical instructions. - Michurinsk: Institute of Technology, 2006.
- ↑ N.I.Polyantsev, A.I.Afanasyev. Obstetrics, gynecology and animal biotechnology. - SPb. : Lan, 2012. - 400 p.
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kyuntyaya Juho, Kyuntyaya Piriyo. Feeding a cash cow . - 2009. - 127 p. - ISBN 9789518081947 .
- ↑ Feeding cows = http://www.yariks.info/arhive.php?c=61&pc=106&m=510 // Newsletter. - Yaroslavl: State educational autonomous institution of the Yaroslavl region "Information and consulting service of the AIC", 2012. - № 7 . Archived {a.
- ↑ 1 2 Vattio, M.A., Howard, V.T. The process of digestion in a milk cow . - The main aspects of milk production. - Wisconsin: International Institute for the Study and Development of Dairy Cattle Breeding. Babkova. Archive dated December 16, 2011 on Wayback Machine
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 Joop Lensink, Michel Tillie, Hélène Leruste. Bovin L'Observation du troupeau: Voir, interpréter, agir. - France Agricole Editions. - 2006. - p. 255. - ISBN 2855571286 .
- ↑ Christophe Cambier et al. Modéle de comportement spatial de troupe de bovins pour la gestion d'un terroir . The appeal date is April 19, 2013. Archived April 19, 2013.
- ↑ Marc Giraud , Vivre avec les bêtes sur France Inter, France 2012
- ↑ 1 2 Veterinary Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editor-in-chief VP Shishkov. - Soviet Encyclopedia. - Moscow.
- ↑ J. Denis, A. Thiongane, “Caractéristiques de la reproduction of chez le zébu étudiées au center de recherches zootechniques de Dahra”, Revue d'élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux, vol. 4, 1973
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 Sexual maturity of livestock . Professional livestock. The appeal date is April 20, 2013. Archived April 28, 2013.
- ↑ Charles Thibault, Marie-Claire Levasseur. La reproduction chez les mammifères et l'homme. - Éditions Quae, 2001. - p. 928.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Signs of sex hunting, insemination of a cow . Sectoral agricultural portal. The appeal date is April 20, 2013. Archived April 28, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 3 Collier Encyclopedia . - Open society. - 2000.
- ↑ Artificial insemination of cows and heifers. Instructions .. - Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation.
- ↑ Zavertyaev B.P. Biotechnology in reproduction and breeding of cattle .. - L .: Agropromizdat, 1989.
- ↑ Transfert et manipulation démbryons chez les bovins ( 07/29/2010 ). Archived December 22, 2011. The appeal date is April 21, 2013.
- ↑ Le clonage et ses applications . The appeal date is April 21, 2013. Archived April 28, 2013.
- ↑ Roger Wolter. Alimentation de la vache laitière // {{{title}}}. - France Agricole éditions, 1997. - p. 263. - ISBN 2855570352 .
- ↑ Gusynina I.A. Toxicology of poisonous plants. - M .: Agricultural literature, magazines and posters, 1962.
- ↑ C. Demarquilly. Ensilage et contamination du lait par les spores butyriques // Productions animales. - 1998. - № 11 . - p . 359-364 .
- ↑ Abdelilah Araba. L'alimentation de la vache laitière pour une meilleure qualité du lait // Bulletin mensuel d'information et de liaison du PNTAA. - 2006. - № 142 . Archived November 4, 2013.
- ↑ 1 2 Carole Drogoul, Hubert Germain. Santé animale: bovins - ovins - caprins, educagri. - 1998. - p. 305-318. - ISBN 2-84444-043-6 .
- ↑ A. Ducos, A. Eggen, R. Darre, D. Boichard. "Les anomalies génétiques dans l'espèce bovine" (Not available link) . The appeal date is April 23, 2013. Archived January 11, 2005.
- ↑ Milk is the oldest medicine
- ↑ Chapter seventeen. The Power of Lord Caitanya Mahaprabhu in His Youth, Text 166 [1] Archival copy of December 27, 2010 on Wayback Machine
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 V. I. Dal. Proverbs of the Russian people . A collection of proverbs, poglokrok, utterances, words, chistogovorok, riddles, beliefs and so on. - M. , 1862.
- Edited by D. N. Ushakov. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. - Astrel, 2007. - 912 p. - ISBN 5-17-042114-.
- ↑ M.I. Michelson. Great explanatory-phraseological dictionary of Michelson. - ETS Publishing house, 2004. - 2208 p.
- ↑ V.P. Belyanin, I.A. Butenko. Live speech. Dictionary of colloquial expressions. - M: PIIMS, 1994.
- ↑ V.M. Mokienko, T.G. Nikitina. Large dictionary of Russian sayings. - M: Olma Media Group, 2007.
Literature
- Cow // Congo - Baptism. - M .: The Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2010. - P. 340. - (The Great Russian Encyclopedia : [in 35 t.] / Ed. Yu. S. Osipov ; 2004–2017, t. 15). - ISBN 978-5-85270-346-0 .