Tool

The designation “tool” was not fixed to all machines and implements, but mainly to non-stationary (manual and portable), which are positioned, can be moved and fed manually. Stationary machines are referred to as machines or equipment.

In Russian, the words “tool” and “tool” are synonyms ^[3] . These synonyms vary in applicability. The term "tool" is used in biology, anthropology and archeology as a means of labor . In the teachings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels on classes, the key term is “tool”, not “tool”. The term "tool" is used to mean "cunning", "witty" and "specialized" means of approach to solving a particular technical problem. In the same source, terms can intersect and replace one another. ^[four]

In addition to the above, for the enzymes used in genetic research and genetic engineering (primarily for restriction enzymes ), the definition of “tools” (and not “reagents”) is usually used as a means of influencing an object.

In metal forming, a tool is a part that comes into direct contact with a deformable metal (die, die forges, rolls, dies), regardless of whether they are movable or stationary.

Effective use of the tool involves knowledge of the rules of operation and the causal relationship of the impact on the object and the results of this impact. The involvement of objects in the labor process and their effective use is closely related to the human imagination , with the ability to model . The revealed relationship between the effectiveness of the impact and knowledge about the properties of the tool influenced the use of the term "tool" in the field of socio-economic , legal knowledge, political , computer technology and software tools . The objects of the impact of the tools were the social climate, information objects.

Initially, the term "tool" was interpreted as a mechanical device, directly, not indirectly, which is perfecting the physical actions of a person. A “tool” imitates actions similar to human actions, but corrected, refined, reinforced. A short logical connection was traced between the actions of the instrument and the person controlling it. However, the meaning of the term has historically undergone a change. From simple mechanical tools to machines, apparatuses, social institutes and devices for converting information flows.

As a rule, the subjects of the technological process are divided into more or less significant, more and less saturated with the idea. The term “instrument” refers to the most significant, primary and saturated with the idea of ​​the subjects. Therefore, with the accumulation of knowledge about previously little significant "auxiliary materials", over time they are often renamed to "tool".

The phenomenon of "mechanical tool" in the animal world. Levers

The use of tools is widespread in the animal kingdom ^[5] and is being studied by bionics . The use of tools by animals is considered cognitive ethology . The organs of living things can be used as tools. ( beak , jaw , teeth , horns , tusks , claws , paws , extremities ), ready-made objects from the environment, as well as objects independently made , can be used.

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  Different types of beaks in birds.

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  Different types of vertebral limbs

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  Jaw and chewing muscle

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  In the tongs , levers of the first kind and a cylindrical hinge are used

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  In the tweezers used levers of the 2nd (3rd) kind

The beak is part of the jaw. The jaw is a lever of 2 (3) kind. In natural mechanical instruments that are animal organs, it is difficult to find a lever of the first kind. The lever of the 1st kind is used in artificial tools - tongs. Due to its anatomy, the hand can easily use force by squeezing fingers moving towards each other. In the jaw, the lever of the 2nd (3) kind, the power part is the chewing muscle, which is located between the shoulders of the lever.

The use of “pre-made mechanical tools” by primates and humans

The phenomenon of “mechanical tool” can be traced at all stages of the development of human species . Throughout the history of the existence of human species, people have gone through the invention of a great variety of tools that have more or less influenced the development of human civilization ^[6] . Some species of birds not only use sticks for hunting in hard-to-reach places, but also support these sticks in a pointed state and carefully store them and carry with them.

California sea ​​otters use stones weighing several kilograms, like an anvil, to break shells of mollusks. Moreover, other species of sea otters, placed next to California sea otters, learn this technique ^[7] . Cases are described when bears for entertainment use the simplest musical instrument ^[8] - an elastic branch . It is known that birds raise stones , then they are thrown to the ground in order to break the hard shell of the edible and obtain the internal filling. In this case, the stone acts as a hammer . However, the most targeted use and manufacture of a “tool” is peculiar to man .

Hand Technology

See Hand .

Enhancing the technological capabilities of the hand with improvised items

The hand could not be a sufficiently effective tool for each specific operation and needed both improvement and a new incarnation. Many ready-made surrounding objects turned out to be more effective than a hand ( sticks , improvised stones for splitting , sharp stones and sticks , stems).

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  Human hand skeleton

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  A man holds a small stone in his palm.

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  Tight stick grip due to short circuit with the thumb.

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  A piece of cheese pounded on a sharp stick.

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  The folded hands of a person form a bowl .

Sharp objects demonstrated the ability to penetrate deeper into the processed material than blunt ones. Capture of objects by sticking on a needle allowed to operate with small objects. The imagination of man penetrated into the microworld, into a world not accessible to either the hand or the eye.

Puncture of objects on the needle demonstrated the idea of ​​fasteners. The body of the object being pierced tightly envelops the needle and is firmly held. Square The first knives were a sharp stone, wood chips, pieces of bone with sharp edges. Just like in a modern knife, the two main parts of the first knives were a blade with a sharp blade (cutting edge) and a handle . The cutting edge is formed when the stone is cracked. Cracking can have a wide variety of natures. A man walking along the seashore often sees cracked stones with sharp edges. It is not necessary to have powerful imagination in order for a person to provoke a split of stones on his own. The opposite part of the stone, conveniently located in the hand, was a hilt. These were the first tools inherited by Australopithecus , the primacy of the finished human ancestor in the early Stone Age . The first tools were stones, bones and sticks. Stone, bone and wood were the first materials of tools. The use of these tools was universal. They were used from the extraction of plant foods to use as weapons in the hunt . Stone artifacts are better preserved over time than plant artifacts. In addition, the stick used as a tool is difficult to distinguish from any other stick. Therefore, the use of sticks by an ancient person can basically be imagined by observing the behavior of modern primates (the composition of chimpanzee DNA is 98.7% common with human DNA) and modern human children. The passion for invention in recent decades has been identified among chimpanzees ^{[9] [10] [11] [12] [13]} and, as it turned out, has a history of several thousand years ^[14] .

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  Chimpanzee gets termites with a sharp stick.

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  Gorilla uses a branch to measure the depth of a pond.

Chimpanzee uses a needle-stick to get termites. Moreover, if the needle is not sharp enough, the monkey sharpens it. Thus, the primate demonstrates the ability to independently produce tools. Already when using a stick, a person could intuitively familiarize themselves with the idea of ​​a lever . It was the stick, due to the elastic properties of wood, that demonstrated the ability to accumulate potential elastic energy . Primary schoolchildren are happy to have fun throwing paper crumbs into the board or the answering student using one end of the ruler clamped in the desk. Perhaps primitive people were engaged in something similar. Both modern hooligans and their earlier predecessors were upset by the fact that the crumbs did not hit the target hard enough. When using stone for splitting, a person got acquainted with the idea of ​​accumulating kinetic energy . When the stone fell, the accumulation of kinetic energy occurred due to potential energy in the gravitational field. A boulder thrown by a group of hunters from a cliff in the Late Paleolithic era into a herd of mammoths passing along the bottom of a ravine made it possible to cope with an animal that was many times superior to humans in strength. When throwing or hitting a stone held in the hand, kinetic energy accumulated as a result of the effect of muscle work on the stone.

The production of mechanical tools by people

Throughout anthropogenesis, the quality of the tools created has changed.

Possibly, the massive Australopithecus Paranthropus robustus was able to make tools ^[15] Australopithecus has reached a degree of development that allows not only to use existing objects as tools, but also to make them. Skillful man ( lat. Homo habilis ) and bipedal man ( lat. Homo erectus ), creators of the Olduvai culture (2.6-1 million years ago). A skilled man used quartz for the manufacture of tools, the deposit of which was several kilometers from the parking lot. They did not take care of the manufactured tools, did not store them, and threw them away after use.

Approximately 1.8 million years ago, hominoid brushes ( the predecessor man ( lat. Homo antecessor )) basically acquired the structure of the brush of modern man. Anthropologists include a strong wrist, the contrast of the thumb of the hand and the presence of wide, shortened terminal phalanges of the fingers to the morphological signs of the working hand. Such a set of signs appeared in the skilled man Homo habilis .

The use of improvised means with skillful and thoughtful influence on each other significantly improved their functional qualities ^[16] . The history of the development of early instruments is traced in successive Olduvai , Abbeville , Cleckton , Acheulian cultures of the Early Paleolithic . Stone tools improved in the Middle Paleolithic , Upper Paleolithic , Mesolithic , Neolithic , in the Copper Age , in the Bronze Age , in the Iron Age . The process of improvement continues at the present time, incorporating the achievements of the entire cultural heritage of inventions. Due to the lack of artifacts, the logic of the development of the instrument is convenient to study on the basis of mental experiments . Due to the historically established division of labor between the sexes, Mason shared the inventions of tools made by men and women ^[17] .

Mastering fire, rotation, circle properties, and symmetry

The development of fire was carried out by man for hundreds of thousands of years. Man mastered the ignition of fire and elementary control of fire . Modern studies of bones, whose age is about 1.5 million years, subjected to temperature exposure, showed that the bones were subjected to heat treatment at 600 C. At the same time, it is known that such a temperature cannot be reached in an open fire of a forest fire. The open fire temperature limit is 300 C. Based on this, it was concluded that the bones could be exposed to heat in a specially equipped hearth created by man. Thus, it is assumed that 1.5 million years ago, a person was able to control the combustion reaction ^[18] . In the same excavation site in the Jordan River area, 12 cultural layers were discovered. In all cultural layers, flint tools exposed to heat treatment were discovered. Instruments throughout cultures and millennia have been localized in a limited space. On this basis, it was concluded that there was a focus in this place in which a person controlled the fire. This focus was attributed to 790 thousand years ago ^[19] . The temperature regime of the home is the main component of a comfortable microclimate . Life in the cave had an advantage over life in the open. The advantage was not only reliable protection from possible external enemies, but also from rain and wind. The lack of horizontal air movement increased the efficiency of useful heating of the walls and air of the home. Как тлеющие или горящие дрова в очаге, так и вертикальный поток продуктов горения образует вертикальный столб высокой температуры, обогревающий инфракрасными лучами окружающее этот столб пространство. Искусство полезного использования этого тепла состоит в оптимальном расстоянии между очагом и стенами. Первые известные жилые постройки имели диаметр 6—9 метров. Нары располагали по внутреннему периметру домов, на расстоянии наибольшего теплового комфорта. Человек освоил очаг , химический реактор ( теплогенератор ), являющийся инструментом поддержания реакции горения . Основным параметром эффективности реактора-очага являлась полезная тепловая отдача топлива .

Fire showed a change in the physicochemical properties of substances under the influence of high temperature. For uniform temperature treatment of the surface of the meat, the pieces of meat are rotated around the axis defined by a sharp stick ( skewer or skewer ). Moreover, in order to improve control over the process, the axis is fixed by recesses in the racks relative to the heat source. The stick does not roll from side to side, but rather rotation around the axis. Rolling round objects is detected by a person when walking. Stepping on a round object, a stably standing person loses balance and "the earth leaves under his feet." Thus, heavy objects located on the rolls (rollers) show the ability to easily move in the horizontal plane. The idea of ​​using rotation around the axis for uniform processing of the product has been known since people began to soften the meat by heat treatment, as well as drying clothes, turning it relative to the heat source.

The skewer section, having a shape different from round, provides a denser fastening of pieces of meat on the axis and prevents slippage. This idea is the basis of the key and splined connection of the disk and shaft.

Known facts of high-temperature processing of materials in order to increase their hardness. Also, heat treatment, combined with flaking technology, made it possible to produce stone tools more efficiently in the Stibel industry .

At the first stages, the use of light emitted during combustion and heating of a house intensified human night activity, leading to an increase in labor productivity and gaining an advantage in the survival and distribution of the species ^[20] .

Mastering Space Separation Technologies

The technology for highlighting a special part of the space is used by birds in the construction of nests . Man developed these technologies in sewing clothes, building , manufacturing containers , utensils and swimming equipment . Over time, the idea of ​​dividing the space by partitions was embodied in a variety of devices, which ultimately led to the emergence and development of sheet metal manufacturing industries.

Early and Middle Paleolithic

By the end of the early Paleolithic (600 thousand years ago), good results were achieved in the technology of manufacturing elementary stone, bone, wooden tools. The first wooden and stone tools self-made by man arose - macrolites ( chopper , scraper , chopped , digging stick ). The oldest known cleaver of the Olduvai culture , discovered by Louis Leakey , is attributed to the period 800 thousand years - 400 thousand years ago ^[21] . Both the species of modern man — the Cro-Magnons and the species of Neanderthals — took part in creating the culture of the Early Paleolithic.

Age 400 thousand liters. n The find is dated, which can be interpreted as a fragment of a complex composite tool - a wooden handle with a cutout, into which, possibly, a stone blade was inserted ^[22] .

In the era of the Middle Paleolithic (from 150,000 to 30,000 years ago), Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals continue to live side by side, but by the end of the Middle Paleolithic on Earth there was only a view of the modern Cro-Magnon man. About 50,000 years ago, the tools used by man on different continents began to acquire features that greatly distinguished these tools depending on the location of the person. Prior to this period, the instruments of labor of a person living on different continents practically did not differ. Ways of technological development of tools geographically isolated people diverged. Most clearly, this difference in technological progress was revealed during the advent of Europeans to the American continent in the Middle Ages . It turned out that Native Americans made extensive use of stone technology at a time when Europe, according to the accepted European periodization, crossed the Iron Age ^[23] .

Aggregation Skills

In the Middle Paleolithic era, according to numerous archaeological finds, the paleoanthropus mastered several types of dwellings. In addition to stationary cave dwellings, dwellings were discovered in small depressions, as well as in open spaces. Dwellings in open spaces were used as temporary seasonal hunting camps. Therefore, technologies related to the construction of facilities in the open were developed. There was a need for the development of technologies for the construction of partition walls of building structures. The technique of fastening by binding was mastered. Tools acquired a combination device. The "stick" turned into an ergonomic handle that lengthens the arm, and the mechanical energy of a person was transferred indirectly to a sharp stone-tip. The functions of the cutter were now performed by the tip of a complex tool, such a tip was no longer necessary to have a large surface necessary for gripping the tool with a hand. The tool became more miniature and acquired greater penetrating power and mobility in relation to the workpiece. At the boundary of the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic, the Atherian culture , which is currently poorly studied, was recorded in which arrowheads were made ^{[24] [25]} . At the same time, early jewelry manufacturing technologies are dated ^[26] .

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  Atheria double-edged puncture.

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  Ateri spiky.

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  Ateri scraper.

The hammer, earlier, more like a boulder, took the form of a modern hammer or hammer, equipped with a handle. A spear appeared. In the spear, the idea was developed of accumulating kinetic energy by the tool when the hand and tool come into contact during the throw. It was possible to achieve a greater total projectile mass. Therefore, in a spear it was possible to accumulate a greater amount of kinetic energy during a throw than in a stone. The problem arose of the rational use of this accumulated kinetic energy. Work was needed to improve the damaging part of the spear- tip ^[27] . The use of a stone tip was based on a technical solution for combining in one product the valuable qualities of components created from materials different in their physical and technical characteristics. The stone was easily made sharp. But he was fragile. The wooden hilt was not fragile, but to bring it to the ability to cut, similar to a sharp stone, seemed problematic. Fiber fasteners embody many physical and technical ideas. Subsequently, these ideas were described mathematically in knot theory . In particular, it was found that when pulling the free end of the rope, the force attracting the objects to be pulled was many times greater than the force acting on the free end. The properties of the block were opened. Strips of raw skin were a good material for fastening. Raw skin after drying showed a change in its physico-chemical properties. During drying, the skin pulled together the fastened parts, and then irreversibly turned into a solid enveloping sleeve. In addition, during the drying process, the skin hardened and assumed a previously planned shape. This technology was used to form clothing elements, and subsequently for the manufacture of boats. Stringing objects on an axis for the purpose of decoration in the Middle Paleolithic era demonstrated the ability of the axis to hold objects near each other ^[28] .

Upper Paleolithic

The creator of the Upper Paleolithic culture was the only human species remaining on Earth - the Cro-Magnon man. The technology of joining the components of a complex tool, in addition to the fastener materials and the art of this fastener , required the study of the geometric shapes of the parts to be connected ^[29] . For a strong connection , the contact surfaces of the parts to be joined should have been machined. In one case, special protrusions were made for laying fiber fasteners in them ^[30] .

In another case, the neck to which the handle was attached was made narrower than the blade. Thus, when hitting an ax, the handle inertia was shifted towards the blade. This design was self-regulatory.

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  Stone axes and chisels at the National Museum of Denmark

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  Puncture of the Upper Paleolithic

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  Sewing needles of the Madeleine culture of the late Upper Paleolithic , found in the south of France. Museum of Toulouse

The combination of clothing elements together was carried out with the same fibrous materials. For a firm grip of the skin with a thread, it was necessary to make holes in the skin with a sharp tool. Making holes in the material and using them in the fastener technique, unlike fasteners by tying the parts to be joined, led to a more compact look of manufactured products, and to improved reliability of the connection. At the same time, an object threaded into the hole showed the properties of the axis and the properties of moving objects around the axis. Due to the mechanical properties of the skin, the hole made after removing the piercing tool from it is reduced in diameter. This makes threading difficult. And the efforts spent to form a hole with a diameter more than necessary, are in vain. This technical problem in the Late Paleolithic (35-12 thousand years ago) was solved with the help of a new tool - a needle with an eye, a sewing needle . A sewing needle made it possible to combine both piercing and threading a thread in one hole in one technological operation. Rope and stick allowed to transfer the point of application of force to a remote distance. In this case, the rope was able to transfer the point of application of force by pulling, provided that the force was attached to the point of application. Moreover, the rope allowed to transfer not only the point of application of force, but also the axis of application of force. The stick easily demonstrated the ability to transfer the point of application of force when pushing.

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  Madeleine tools and weapons found in La Madeleine parking lot, France

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  Spear Throwers from Northeast Arizona Caves

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  Bone fishing hook, in the article "Stone Age" ^[31] in Nordisk familjebok

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  Fasteners knots

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  European Paleolithic reindeer bone tools

A hook was required to carry the point of application of the force of the stick by pulling. A hook on a stick could easily serve as a hook model. For the application of force at the end of the rope when pulling, either a fastening by means of a knot or a hook could serve, the simplest prototype of which could be the outgoing shoot from the array of the stem. The hook was a more mobile and technological means of attaching the end of the rope than a knot. The hook demonstrated the properties of a potential well . The fish caught on the hook, showing vibrations, continued to remain on the hook. A second small hook at the tip of the fishing hook reinforced the effect of the property of the potential pit.

The idea of ​​transferring the point of application of the hand force to another object was perfectly embodied in a fishing rod , in a spear-thrower . When using a spear thrower, the hand acted on the spear indirectly, through a spear thrower. The idea of ​​accumulating kinetic energy as a result of muscular work , which is a product of the force acting on the projectile and the length of the path segment of the impact of this force, was reflected in the lance-thrower and the stone ax . The same idea was embodied in a hammer with a handle. The handle allowed to increase the path length of the massive part of the hammer. Thus, it became possible to accumulate a greater amount of kinetic energy with a swing than with a hammer without a stick.

Both stone and bone, in particular, reindeer, were used as working parts of the Upper Paleolithic instrument ^[32] .

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  Vestonitskaya Venus , ceramics, 29-25 thousand years BC. e. Moravian Museum of Brno

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  Drawings in Altamira

At the end of the Paleolithic there was an opportunity to engage in art . The works of art made by these instruments showed expressiveness and elegance.

Westonitsa Venus - the “Paleolithic Venus”, discovered in Moravia, is the oldest known ceramic figurine. The product belongs to the gravetta culture and dates from 29 000 and 25 000 years. BC e.

The oldest finds of pottery in the Far East date back to the Late Paleolithic era ^[33] .

Mesolithic. Complex aggregation. The multiplicity of ideas embodied in the tool

In the Mesolithic era (from 15 to 6 thousand years BC) an onion was created. The bow embodied the idea of ​​transferring the point of application of force not only along the axis of the force, but also transferring the axis of the force, the idea of ​​elasticity of wood, the idea of ​​accumulating muscle energy in potential energy of elasticity, the idea of ​​converting potential energy of elasticity into kinetic energy of an arrow. The kinetic energy of the arrow released is significant. The shape of the tip and fasteners required special study ^[34] .

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  Mesolithic harpoon made using microlith technology

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  Mesolithic boom made using microlith technology

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  Onion

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  Leather canoe

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  Jomon Culture Sinker, Japan

Findings of the first bony arrowheads and needles in the Shibudu cave date back to 61,000 years ago ^[35] . However, the finds in the Sibudu cave are currently a big mystery, because the remaining known found arrowheads date back 20 millennia later. The earliest finds of fishing hooks in Kostenki date back 40 thousand years ago ^[36] .

The results of the collective creativity of people have always aroused admiration and awe. Famous temples founded in the ninth millennium BC. e. Stone fragments of temples have a mass of several tens of tons. The movement of such fragments required the simultaneous coordinated work of several hundred workers. The later masterpieces of such millennium technologies delight us.

By the end of the Paleolithic-early Mesolithic, the technology of fasteners was mastered by bonding or gluing with resin . A microlith technology is being developed, including techniques for chipping plates from nuclei using the Levallois technique . Microlith technology was the development of a technical solution for combining in one product the valuable qualities of components created from materials different in their physical and technical characteristics. The sharp stone of the spearhead collapsed when it hit the stones. Making a stone tip was a time-consuming process. At the same time, small sharp stones formed during cleavage of flint or obsidian were abundant. At the same time, when one of the microliths in the spear was destroyed, the rest remained in place and continued to fulfill their functions. The microliths were placed with sharp edges towards the damaging side of the spear. Thus, a spear that touched thick skin or scales cut through this shell. The movement of the spear ( harpoon ) in the direction of extraction was hampered due to abutment in blunt parts of microliths. This feature was of particular value when used in a harpoon. The affected fish should not have escaped the hunter.

A significant number of various tools of the Mesolithic era were found in excavations of the Natuf culture and were described by Emmanuel Anati ^[37] . The Natufians mastered the foundations of agricultural knowledge . They were engaged in the collection of grain of wild cereals with the help of special harvesting knives. The technology of dividing space was mastered. As a result, storage depots in grain pits were allocated. Natufians used tamed dogs . Ground grain was ground into flour with a pestle in a mortar . Capacities made from an ostrich egg were found.

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  Чум

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  Шило для плетения корзин

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  Basket

Технологии хранения зерна заключают в себе комплекс технологических операций, связанных с сушкой , проветриванием, поддержанием режимов температуры и влажности, защитой от вредителей. Хранение зерна в корзинах позволяет разделить большой объём на более малые и улучшить вентиляцию. Корзина имеет не только жесткий каркас, позволяющий осуществлять транспортировку и обособленное хранение содержимого, но и в силу конструкции стенок, проветривать содержимое, избавляя от излишков влаги. Нетрудно себе представить, как корзина, забитая остатками мокрой глины, превращается в сосуд, удерживающий воду. Таким образом, освоение образования форм поверхностей путём плетения явилось шагом в изготовлении герметичных, водонепроницаемых поверхностей из глины. Само плетение корзин представляло собою сложный технологический процесс и изящное искусство ^[38] . Хотя корзины у натуфийцев найдены не были, были найдены инструменты, предположительно использующиеся для их плетения. Люди оставляли пещеры и перемещали своё жильё поближе к источникам средств существования. Простейшие быстро возводимые жилища и укрытия ( шалаши и чумы ) замещались добротными стационарными полуземлянками со стенами, выполненными каменной кладкой .

В конце мезолита уже производили хирургические операции трепанации черепа ^[39] . Причем эти операции широко практиковались. Из 120 черепов в захоронении во Франции , датированных 6500 лет до н. э., 40 имели отверстия ^[40] Множество этих отверстий имели структуру зажившей травмы, что указывает на успешность проведённых операций.

Древнейшая найденная лодка-долблёнка - каноэ также относится к эпохе мезолита. ^[41]

Неолит

На Ближнем Востоке неолит начался около 9500 лет до н. e. ^[42] . В эпоху неолита произошла неолитическая революция — экономика охоты и собирательства была дополнена более производительной и менее рискованной экономикой сельского хозяйства — животноводством и растениеводством.

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  Цеп — кинематическая пара нижнего уровня

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  Реконструкция неолитического серпа

Развивается логистика . Известные культуры неолита — культура линейно-ленточной керамики (5500—4500 гг. до н. э.), культура накольчатой керамики (около 4600—4400 гг. до н. э.), рёссенская культура (4600—4300 гг. до н. э.), михельсбергская культура (около 4400—3500 гг. до н. э.), культура воронковидных кубков (4000—2700 гг. до н. э.).

Мегалиты мезолита и неолита свидетельствуют не только о высокой организации общества, но и высоком уровне технологий, использовавшихся для сооружения храмов и обработки камня. Развитие технологий строительства и укладки камня можно увидеть в Нэп-оф-Хауар и Скара-Брей . Понимание явлений трения и скольжения привела к применению шлифования к граням режущих и рубящих инструментов.

К концу неолита освоено гончарное ремесло , изобретен гончарный круг и применен высокотемпературный обжиг в печи ^[43] . Сам по себе гончарный круг, в силу современного использования термина «инструмент» не является инструментом, однако, к своему времени появления, он явился воплощением инженерной мысли, накопленной человеком на протяжении сотен тысячелетий и опробованной на более простых инструментах.

Инженерные решения, воплощённые в гончарном круге, явились воплощением идей, ранее прослеживавшихся в более простых инструментах. Это не только агрегатирование идей, касающихся изобретения этого станка, но и эффектное встраивание сложного технического решения в технологическую цепь (процесс преобразования простых материалов как формовкой, так и термическим воздействием). Появление глиняной посуды было заметным явлением как в технологическом, так и в культурном аспекте. Варка продуктов питания теперь высокотехнологично производилась в ёмкости .

Пища, приготовленная в ёмкости путём варки, имела консистенцию, отличную от консистенции пищи, приготовленной на огне путём поджаривания на вертеле. В результате появился удобный инструмент, предназначенный для транспорта такой пищи ко рту — ложка .

Известны два способа формовки глины. В Америке до пришествия европейцев местные индейцы использовали для формирования гончарных форм способ укладки тонкого глиняного жгута по спирали. Гончарный круг не использовался. Основной узел гончарного круга — это подставка, наглухо закреплённая на оси. Далее ось этого приспособления могла быть установлена в той или иной части рабочего места гончара. Ось в совокупности с направляющей оси образовывали кинематическую пару высшего уровня .

Медный и бронзовый века

Среди сохранившихся инструментов медного века (период IV—III тысячелетия до н. э.) — медный топор Эци ^[44] . Впечатляет качество деревообработки.

•  

  Реконструкция топора Эци

•  

  Ложка трипольской культуры

•  

  Изготовление долблённой лодки

Преимуществом медного топора по отношению к каменному является ремонтопригодность, а также больший вес лезвия при одних и тех же размерах.

Известные культуры медного и бронзового века: михельсбергская культура (около 4400—3500 гг. до н. э.), культура воронковидных кубков (4000—2700 гг. до н. э.), культура колоколовидных кубков (около 2800—1900 до н. э.), Трипольская культура (VI—III тыс. до н. э.).

Около 4000 до н. e. в дельте Нила держали одомашненных нубийских ослов . Вьючный транспорт был переведен от использования работы человека к работе осла. Феноменальностью средств и инструментов, применённых для сооружения вьюков , стало применение инструментов для использования сторонних источников энергии, не связанных с работой человека.

•  

  Навыки технологий вьючного транспорта на картине Франческо Джоли ^[45]

•  

  Перевозка дров на ослах

Совершенствование технологий обработки камня привело к возможности высокотехнологично изготавливать отверстия для крепления рукояти и появлению современного способа крепежа рукояти и топорища.

Открытие бронзы и разработка технологий добычи бронзы из руды привело не только к повышению твёрдости медных инструментов, но и позволило организовывать первые массовые производства инструментов путём одновременной отливки в сложных формах множества единиц. Литьё бронзы позволяло изготавливать изделия сложной формы и малые тонкие детали.

Железный век

Освоение хеттами технологий извлечения железа из песка привело к повсеместному внедрению металлического инструмента, сменившего инструмент каменный. Наиболее древний известный железный нож относится к 2100—1950 до н. e. ^[46] . Известно послание фараона царю хатти , датируемое примерно 2000 годом до н. э., с просьбой прислать ему железный кинжал. В гробнице египетского фараона Тутанхамона (ок. 1350 г. до н. э.) был найден железный кинжал.

Инструмент с немускульным приводом

Качественным скачком в развитии инструмента явилось его оснащение движителем, использующим немускульную энергию.

• Ветряная мельница
• Водяная мельница
• Паровая машина
• Электрифицированный инструмент
• Пневматический привод
• Гидравлический привод

• Орудия труда
• Первобытное общество
• Хронология изобретений человечества
• Хронология открытий человечества
• Хронологическая таблица
• Список изобретений, сделанных в Китае

• Инструменты // Малый энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 4 т. — СПб. , 1907—1909.
• Каменные орудия // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
• Орудие // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). - SPb. , 1890-1907.
• Геннадий Федотов, «Русская печь», Москва, 2002 г.
• Очерки истории техники докапиталистических формаций. Академия наук СССР Издательство Академии наук СССР Москва-Ленинград, 1936 г. Б. Л. Богаевский , И. М. Лурье, П. Н. Шульц, Е. Ч. Скржинская, Е. А. Цейтлин Под общей редакцией акад. В. Ф. Миткевича

• Использование орудий труда животными (недоступная ссылка)
• Словарь русских синонимов и сходных по смыслу выражений.- под. ред. Н. Абрамова, М.: Русские словари, 1999.
• Мумифицированный во льду человек медного века
• Эммануэль Анати. Палестина до древних евреев. М.: Центрполиграф, 2008 г.
• Берлинский музей этнографии
• Каменный век в Nordisk familjebok
• История изобретений человечества .