Theodosius I the Great

Flavius ​​Theodosius was born about 346 ^{[K 1]} in the Spanish city of Cauca ^[1] in the province of Galicia (the modern city of Coca in Segovia ). Aurelius Victor reports that Theodosius came from the clan of the famous emperor Trajan . His parents were Fermanzia (Termanzia) and the Roman commander Theodosius ^{[K 2]} .

Theodosius the Elder rose to the post of commander of the cavalry ( Latin magister equitum praesentalis ) under the emperor Valentinian . Ammianus Marcellinus characterizes him as a man, " whose valor at that time stood out with its brilliance among others as unattainable " ^[2] . In recent years, Theodosius the Elder suppressed the uprising of local tribes led by Firm II in North Africa, but in 375 he was accused of treason and executed in 376 .

The future emperor Theodosius, as historians believe, began military service under the leadership of his father and participated with him in an expedition to Roman Britain to suppress the revolt of the Picts and Scottes . In 374, he served as commander of troops in the Danube province of Moesia ( Latin dux Moesiae Primae ), where he successfully fought with the Sarmatians:

“Duks of Moesia Theodosius the Younger, then a young man with a barely piercing beard, and subsequently a glorious emperor, several times expelled free Sarmatians, so called unlike slaves who rebelled against them, and defeated them during their invasions of our borders on the other side. Despite the brave resistance, their hordes flocked in numerous skirmishes so decisively that he saturated wild animals and birds of prey with the blood of many dead ” ^[3] .

According to the historian of the 5th century Zosima , it was the victories over the Sarmatians that brought Theodosius subsequently to the imperial regalia ^[4] . After the execution of his father, Theodosius had to seek refuge ^{[K 3]} , but soon - in 376 - he took up the post of commander of troops in the Balkan province of Illyric ( Latin magister militum per Illyricum ) ^{[K 4]} , where he again reflects the Sarmatian raids. After this post, after 3 years, the emperor Grazian called Theodosius to the imperial throne.

According to the medieval church chronicle of George Amartol, Theodosius after his father's death was exiled to his homeland in Spain, where he lived quietly until the emperor Valens before his death asked Grazian to send Theodosius to him.

The end of the Gothic war. 379 - 382 years

As a result of the rebellion of the Goths in 377, the territory of Thrace and Moesia became the scene of the struggle between the barbarian tribes and the allied forces of the western and eastern parts of the Roman Empire. On August 9, 378, near Adrianople (modern Turkish Edirne ), the Goths, led by the leader Fritigern, completely defeated the Roman army, killing Emperor Valent in battle. His nephew, Emperor Grazian , at that time came to the aid of his uncle, but after the death of Valenta remained on the territory of modern Serbia, trying to prevent the barbarians from breaking from the Balkans to Italy.

According to the order established in the empire, Grazian was to appoint a co-ruler to control the eastern part of the Roman Empire, and in view of the current situation, it is desirable from among people who possessed military talents. Grazian did not dare to entrust his formal co-ruler in the western part of the empire, his infant brother Valentinian , with power over the East. According to historian David Woods ^[5] , Grazian actually had no choice, since all his commanders, judging by the names, were from the barbarians, and only the commander of the troops in Illyric, Flavius ​​Theodosius, came from a noble Roman family.

January 19 ^[6] 379 in Sirmia (modern Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia) Grazian proclaimed Theodosius the emperor of the eastern part of the Roman Empire.

Theodosius near Sirmia defeated the Goths ^[7] , then the fighting took place without major general battles. Zosima spoke about one of the victories of the Romans. The military commander Theodosius Modarius, descended from the "royal Scythian family" (probably the Goth), waited in ambush when the barbarians became intoxicated and heavy from the feast. He then ordered his warriors to attack their camp light with swords alone. The barbarians were killed for a short time, the Romans captured 4 thousand wagons and so many prisoners that they filled all these wagons ^[8] .

Almost 2 years after being appointed emperor, Theodosius left Thessaloniki , where he led the war against the Goths, and entered Constantinople on November 24, 380 ^[9] , after which he focused on church politics and diplomatic work with the Gothic leaders. He drew many barbarians into the army, allowing them to freely leave its ranks and enter back at will. Although the number of troops recovered, their discipline and controllability decreased significantly. Zosima reports that Grazian sent Theodosius to help the troops, led by the Franks Baudon and Arbogast , who squeezed gangs of barbarians from Macedonia and Thessaly back to Thrace. This improved the situation in the eastern part of the Roman Empire and made it ready for negotiations.

In January 381, Theodosius managed to conclude an alliance with the Gothic leader Atanarich , but the latter died in Constantinople 2 weeks later ^[10] . Theodosius turned the funeral of the leader into a magnificent ceremony, hoping to win the favor of the barbarians. October 3, 382 ^{[K 5]} Theodosius entered into a peace treaty, according to which the Goths settled as federates of the empire in Lower Moesia and Thrace (the territory of modern Bulgaria). This date is considered the end of the Roman Gothic war.

Strengthening power. 383 - 387 years

After the conclusion of peace with the Goths, Theodosius turned his attention to the East. On the possession of the empire in Syria, taking advantage of the situation, raided the Saracens . In 383, the commander Theodosius Richomer defeated them ^[11] , after which a number of Arab tribes as federates guarded the borders of the empire in this direction.

The struggle for power in the Persian Empire significantly weakened the main threat to the empire in the East, besides Theodosius was able to maintain good relations with the changing Persian kings ^[5] . In order to finally eliminate the potential source of contention on the border, in 387 Theodosius reached an agreement with the Persians on dividing Armenia into spheres of influence. The western part of Armenia fell under the control of King Arshak, and the eastern remained in the possession of King Khosrov .

At this time, power in the Western Roman Empire changed. In 383, the commander of the Roman army in Britain, Magnus Maxim landed in Gaul , usurping power there. The Roman emperor Grazian was killed during the time of troubles ^{[K 6]} . His younger co-regent, Valentinian, became co-ruler of Maxim, owning Italy and the provinces in Africa and the Balkans. Theodosius was forced to recognize the imperial title of Maxim following the recognition of Maxim Valentinian.

The overthrow of the usurper Maxim . 387 - 388 years.

In the summer of 387, Maxim sent troops to northern Italy, forcing the emperor Valentinian to flee to Thessaloniki under the protection of Theodosius. The emperors' political interest in each other was strengthened by the marriage of Theodosius to Halle , Valentinian's sister, in the same year. Theodosius' first wife, Flacilla , passed away by this time.

In 388, the war began against Maxim. The Roman governor in North Africa, Gildon captured Sicily, drawing some of Maxim's forces to the southern theater of war. The combined army of Theodosius and Valentinian defeated the army of Maxim in Sicius and Poetovion (on the Sava River) ^[12] , then approached the eastern Alps. Alpine passages to the north of Italy were guarded by the military commander Maxim Andragatsiy , who erected fortifications and took all possible places of river crossings. Andragatsii decided to make a sea raid in order to suddenly attack the enemy, but Theodosius took advantage of this and without resistance overcame the Alps, left without proper protection ^[13] .

Maxim was captured in Aquileia and executed there on August 28, 388 . Andragats, learning about the death of Maxim, threw himself from the ship into the sea.

Before returning to Constantinople, Theodosius remained in Italy for more than 3 years, making Mediolan his residence.

Theodosius and St. Ambrose . 389 - 391 years

During his 3-year stay in Italy, Theodosius was under the spiritual influence of Bishop Mediolanus St. Ambrose .

In 390, unrest occurred in the largest city of Macedonia, Thessaloniki . The commander of the troops in the province of Illyrik Boterih sent to prison the popular charioter for domestic misconduct ^[14] . A crowd of local residents demanded that he be released as the man necessary for the upcoming races, and when Boterich refused, they killed him, stoning him. Other representatives of the imperial administration also died. Theodosius, regarding this as a rebellion, ordered to kill a predetermined number of citizens. According to various accounts, between 7 and 15 thousand inhabitants died ^{[K 7]} .

When, after these events, Theodosius wanted to pray in the church, St. Ambrose did not let him go on the threshold, accusing him of killing the innocent and demanding repentance. Only 8 months later, the bishop forgave the emperor, forcing him to pass a law according to which the approval of death sentences was postponed for 30 days after the sentencing ^[15] .

The overthrow of the usurper Eugene. 392 - 394 years.

Theodosius returned to Constantinople on November 10, 391 ^[16] . After Theodosius left Italy, the actual power in the West Roman Empire was exercised not by the emperor Valentinian , but by his commander-in-chief, Frank Arbogast . Valentinian's attempts to defend his powers led to a conflict, as a result of which on May 15, 392, he was killed under unclear circumstances. Without waiting for the decision of Theodosius, on August 22 Arbogast elevated his protege, the head of the imperial chancellery, Eugene, to the imperial throne.

Theodosius refused to recognize the legitimacy of Eugene and in the summer of 394 he moved the army to Italy. On September 6, 394, a general battle took place in the foothills of the eastern Alps on the Frigid River (on the border of modern Slovenia with Italy). The forward detachment of the Theodosius army of 10 thousand was completely destroyed by Arbogast, which contemporaries considered rather a blessing than a loss ^[13] . According to Zosima, Eugene to the end of the day after the end of the battle began to prematurely celebrate the victory. The commander of Arbogast Arbitsion sided with Theodosius, which may have become a decisive factor in the defeat of the usurper ^[13] . Suddenly, the soldiers of Theodosius broke into the camp of the Western Romans to the tent of the usurper emperor. Eugene was captured and immediately beheaded, his head at the peak was shown to his troops, who for the most part crossed to the side of Theodosius. Arbogast fled to the mountains, a chase was sent after him, and he stabbed himself to avoid captivity.

The final section of the empire. 395 year

For several months, Theodosius became the de facto ruler of the united Roman Empire. In Rome, he proclaimed the son of Honorius Emperor, canceled a number of ancient pagan ceremonies through the Senate, and was about to return to Constantinople, where he left the rule of his eldest son Arcadius during his absence.

January 17, 395 Theodosius the Great died of dropsy ^[17] in Mediolan (modern Milan ). His embalmed body was brought to Constantinople the same year for burial.

Before his death, Theodosius managed to carry out a peaceful division of the heritage of the Roman Empire between his sons. The elder Arkady got the eastern part with its capital in Constantinople , which in modern historiography was called Byzantium . The younger Honorius was transferred to the Western part of the Roman Empire. The 10-year-old emperor Honorius Theodosius placed under the tutelage of the trusted commander Stilicho , who, 8 years before, had married his niece Serena.

Since 395, the Greek eastern and Latin western halves of the empire never again united under a single government. The western part of the empire fell apart under the onslaught of barbarians after 80 years, and Byzantium for more than a millennium maintained the continuity of the traditions of the Roman Empire.

Having become emperor, Theodosius broke with the religious system established earlier by Emperor Constantine the Great , which generally maintained the neutrality of the state in relation to various cults and confessions of citizens of the empire ^{[K 8]} . Under Theodosius, the dogmas of Christianity began to be fixed not as a result of free discussion in church circles, but were approved by government decrees.

Emperor Theodosius is canonized in the face of a saint, the day of remembrance in the Orthodox Church is celebrated on January 17 ( 30 ).

Christianity as a State Religion

Theodosius came from a Christian family, but, according to Socrates Scholastic , was baptized during his illness by Bishop Thessaloniki Asholy only in 380 ^[18] .

February 27, 380 , a year after the proclamation of the emperor, Theodosius in Thessaloniki (during the war with the Goths) issued a fundamental edict of lat. de fide catholica ("on the universal faith"). Christian faith was declared admissible for subjects of the empire exclusively in the form fixed at the Council of Nicaea :

“In accordance with Our decree, all nations under the control of Our Grace must adhere to the faith given to the Romans by the Apostle Peter, for it cleanses to this day. This is the faith followed by the pontiff Damasius , as well as the bishop of Alexandria, Peter , a man of apostolic holiness. Following apostolic holiness, in other words, in accordance with the teachings of the apostles and the Gospel, we must believe in one God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, adhering to the position that they are equal in magnitude, as well as the dogma of the Holy Spirit ” ^[19] .

A year later, in January 381, a new edict was issued clarifying the Thessaloniki resolution ^[20] . The victory of the " Nicene people " was ideologically fixed at the Council of Constantinople (Second Ecumenical) in July 381 , and then supported by an administrative ban on leading the churches to the bishops of the Nenikey confession ^[21] .

Arianism and other movements in Christianity, other than the Nicene Creed, were declared heresies, and were subject to persecution by the state. Although many inhabitants of the empire continued to adhere to Arian beliefs, they were forbidden to have their churches and gather in settlements ^[22] . Repressions were directed mainly against some representatives of heretical clergy . In 388 , taking advantage of Theodosius' departure for the war with Magnus Maxim, the Arians staged unrest in Constantinople ^[23] , but Theodosius limited himself to a warning addressed to them ^[24] .

The Nicene formula of faith, supported by Theodosius, became officially called catholic . However, the religious question was not finally resolved; theological disputes about the nature of Christ and the essence of faith continued with renewed vigor in the 1st half of the 5th century .

Paganism

The first Christian emperors launched a struggle with some pagan traditions (in particular, death was punishable by seeking divination), but only under Theodosius did the state set out to eradicate pagan cults and religions. As noted in the Easter Chronicle: “The illustrious Constantine , having reigned, only locked the shrines and temples of the Hellenes, and this Theodosius destroyed [them] ... ” ^[25]

In 381 - 385, a number of decrees were banned under pain of the death penalty of sacrifice and the destruction of pagan temples was prescribed. The 391 edict inflicted another blow to paganism, setting heavy fines for worshiping the old gods:

“No one has the right to make sacrifices, no one should go around [pagan] temples, no one should honor the temple. Everyone should know that Our law prohibits entry into pagan temples, and if someone, despite Our ban, tries to perform certain religious actions against the gods, then let him know that he will not be able to avoid punishment, even using special signs of the imperial arrangement. The judge [...] must force the wicked lawbreaker who entered the desecrated place to pay a fine of fifteen pounds in gold to Our Treasury ” ^[26] .

In 392, Christians, led by the militant patriarch of Alexandria Theophilus, destroyed the cult center of Alexandria Serapeum , including the temple of the god Serapis and the library. Theodosius forbade the study and teaching of mathematics (astrology) ^{[K 9]} , although even before his decree from the end of the 3rd century this discipline was associated with magic and witchcraft, and its lessons were severely punished ^[27] .

In the year 393 ^{[K 10]} , the Olympic Games were last celebrated, which was the main sports festival in ancient Greece for more than 11 centuries. In literature, the termination of games is sometimes associated with the decree of Theodosius, but his last known edict on the fight against paganism dates back to 392 and there is no indication of a ban on the Olympic Games. Theodosius did not forbid the competition at all ( Socrates Scholastic noted that Theodosius died on the day that the horse races were held), but imposed certain restrictions that made the Greek Olympics impossible.

The famous philosophical school in Athens continued to exist. In Alexandria, Christians studied with interest classical classical philosophy without prejudice to their religious feelings. Noble senators in Rome continued to traditionally adhere to pagan views, although without the possibility of publicly performing the previous ceremonies.

In fact, the practice of paganism continued within individual families or in the remote corners of the empire; festivals of pagan cults intertwined with Christian rites and customs, paving the way for new syncretism .

Non-Christian authors of that era associated with the abolition of sacrifices and other pagan ceremonies the subsequent decline of the Roman Empire that followed shortly ^{[K 11]} .

Appearance and character

The most detailed about the appearance and personality of Theodosius was told by the Roman historian Sextus Aurelius Victor :

“Theodosius, as far as the ancient descriptions and images show, was physically and physically similar to Trajan: the same tall stature, the same figure and magnificent hair and the same face [...] Theodosius was meek, merciful, sociable, he considered, what differs from other people only in its clothes; and was benevolent to everyone, especially to good people. He equally loved simple-minded people, as he admired scientists, but honest, was generous and generous [...] With regard to the sciences, if you look at the most successful in them, his education was mediocre, but he was very penetrating and very fond of to learn about the deeds of the ancestors [...] He practiced physically, but without getting carried away and not overworked, rested when he had leisure, mainly on walks; maintained health, observing moderation in food ” ^[28] .

The non-Christian historian of the fifth century, Zosima , following his source Eunapius , was critical of the persecutor of the pagans Theodosius. According to him, the emperor loved luxury, surrounded himself with a large retinue and thoughtlessly spent the treasury. To improve finances, he sold the provincial administration to any person who offered the highest price ^[29] .

Family and Descendants

Theodosius had a sister and brother Honorius, who died early ^[28] . Theodosius brought up their children; he gave his daughters to Fermantius and Serena to marry their commanders. Serena in 387 became the wife of the future Commander-in-Chief of the Western Roman Empire, Stilicho ; the Senate of Rome executed her in 408 on suspicion of conspiracy with the leader Goth Alaric .

• Theodosius' first wife, Elia Flavia Flacilla , was originally from Spain, was engaged in charity work and died in 386 . Their children: future emperors Arkady (born c. 377 ) and Honorius (born 384 ), as well as Pulcheria (born 385 ) who died in childhood.
• In 387 ^{[K 12],} Justin, the widow of Emperor Valentinian I , arranged for the marriage of Theodosius to her daughter Galle , who was distinguished by her extraordinary beauty in recalling Zosima . Thus Theodosius became related to the emperor of the West of the Roman Empire, Valentinian II , brother of Galla. Galla gave birth to Galla Placidia , who in 414 became the wife of the Gothic leader Ataulf and only then the Roman empress, as well as Grazian, who died in childhood. Galla died in childbirth (the newborn John also died) in May 394 .

• Theodosius I : a biography of Theodosius, written on the basis of the original sources by the historian David Woods.
• Theodosius I : A popular biography of Theodosius by publication: M. Grant. Roman emperors / per. from English M. Gitt - M .; TERRA - Book Club, 1998