Psychological experiment

In psychology, experimental research has its own specifics, allowing it to be considered separately from research in other sciences. The specificity of a psychological experiment is that:

• It is impossible to directly observe the psyche as a construct and one can learn about its activity only based on its manifestations, for example, in the form of a certain behavior .
• When studying mental processes, it is considered impossible to single out one of them, and the impact always occurs on the psyche as a whole (or, from the modern point of view, on the body as a single indivisible system).
• In experiments with people (as well as some higher animals , for example, primates ), an active interaction occurs between the experimenter and the subject.
• This interaction, among other things, makes it necessary for the subject to have instructions (which, obviously, is not typical for natural science experiments).

Robert Woodworth , who published his classic textbook on experimental psychology (Experimental psychology, 1938 ), defined the experiment as an orderly study in which the researcher directly changes a factor (or factors), keeps the others unchanged, and observes the results of systematic changes . A distinctive feature of the experimental method, he considered managing the experimental factor , or, in Woodworth's terminology, an “ independent variable ”, and tracking its influence on the observed effect , or “ dependent variable ”. The experimenter's goal is to keep all conditions constant, with the exception of one independent variable ^[2] .

In a simplified example, an independent variable can be considered as some relevant stimulus ( St (r) ), the strength of which varies by the experimenter, while a dependent variable is the reaction ( R ) of the subject, his psyche ( P ) to the effect of this relevant stimulus.

However, as a rule, it is precisely the desired stability of all conditions except an independent variable that is unattainable in a psychological experiment, since in addition to these two variables, there are almost always additional variables , systematic irrelevant stimuli ( St (1) ) and random stimuli ( St (2) ), leading respectively to systematic and random errors. Thus, the final schematic representation of the experimental process looks like this:

Therefore, in the experiment, three types of variables can be distinguished:

1. Independent variable
2. Dependent variable
3. Additional variables (or external variables)

So, the experimenter is trying to establish a functional relationship between the dependent and the independent variable, which is expressed in the function R = f ( St (r) ), while trying to take into account the systematic error that arose as a result of irrelevant stimuli (examples of the systematic error include moon phases , time of day and etc.). To reduce the likelihood of random errors affecting the result, the researcher seeks to conduct a series of experiments (an example of a random error, for example, may be fatigue or a speck that fell into the eye of the subject).

The main objective of the experimental study

The general task of psychological experiments is to establish the presence of a relationship R = f ( S, P ) and, if possible, the form of the function f (there are various types of communication - cause-effect, functional, correlation, etc.). In this case, R is the test subject’s reaction, S is the situation, and P is the subject’s personality, psyche, or “internal processes” ^[3] . That is, roughly speaking, since mental processes cannot be "seen", in a psychological experiment, on the basis of the subjects' reactions to stimulation, regulated by the experimenter, any conclusion is made about the psyche, mental processes, or personality of the subject.

Experiment Stages

In each experiment, the following stages can be distinguished. The first stage is the statement of the problem and goal, as well as the construction of the experimental plan. The experimental design should be based on the accumulated knowledge and reflect the relevance of the problem.

The second stage is the actual process of active influence on the surrounding world, as a result of which objective scientific facts accumulate. Obtaining these facts is greatly facilitated by a correctly selected experimental technique. As a rule, the experimental method is formed on the basis of the difficulties that must be eliminated in order to solve the problems posed in the experiment. The technique developed for some experiments may turn out to be suitable for other experiments, that is, to acquire universal significance. Source

Validity in a Psychological Experiment

The concept of validity is considered the cornerstone of both natural science experiments and psychological experiments: if an experiment is valid, scientists may have some confidence that they measured exactly what they wanted to measure. Many measures are being taken to comply with all types of validity ^[4] . However, it is impossible to be absolutely sure that in any study, even the most thoughtful, you can completely comply with all the criteria of validity. A completely flawless experiment is unattainable.

Allocate depending on the conditions

• Laboratory experiment - conditions are specially organized by the experimenter. The main task is to ensure high internal validity. The selection of a single independent variable is characteristic. The main way to control external variables is elimination. External validity is lower than in a field experiment.
• Field or natural experiment - an experiment is conducted under conditions that the experimenter does not control. The main task is to ensure high external validity. The selection of a complex independent variable is characteristic. The main ways to control external variables are randomization (the levels of external variables in the study exactly correspond to the levels of these variables in life, that is, outside the study) and constancy (to make the level of the variable the same for all participants). Internal validity is generally lower than in laboratory experiments.

Depending on the result of exposure, they are allocated.

A stating experiment - the experimenter does not change the properties of the participant irreversibly, does not form new properties in him, and does not develop those that already exist.

Formative experiment - the experimenter changes the participant irreversibly, forms in him those properties that did not exist before or develops those that already existed.

Pathopsychological experiment - the goal of the experiment is the task of qualitative and quantitative assessment of the basic processes of thinking; the experimenter, as a rule, is not interested in the direct test results, since during the experiment, a study is conducted of the method of achieving the result.

Awareness Level

Depending on the level of awareness, experiments can also be divided into

• those in which the subject is given complete information about the goals and objectives of the study,
• those in which, for the purpose of the experiment, some information about him from the subject is concealed or distorted (for example, when it is necessary that the subject does not know about the true hypothesis of the study, they may be informed false),
• and those in which the subject is not aware of the purpose of the experiment or even the fact of the experiment itself (for example, experiments involving children ).

Flawless Experiment

Not a single experiment in any science is capable of withstanding the critics of the supporters of the “absolute” accuracy of scientific conclusions. However, as a standard of excellence, Robert Gottsdanker introduced the concept of “perfect experiment” into experimental psychology - an unattainable ideal of an experiment that fully satisfies the three criteria (ideality, infinity, full compliance) that researchers should strive for approximation ^[5] .

An impeccable experiment is an experiment model that is not practical in practice and is used by psychologists- experimenters as a reference . This term was introduced into experimental psychology by Robert Gottsdanker , the author of the well-known book Fundamentals of a Psychological Experiment, who believed that using such a sample for comparison would lead to more effective improvement of experimental methods and identification of possible errors in planning and conducting a psychological experiment .

Criteria for a Flawless Experiment

A perfect experiment, according to Gottsdanker, must satisfy three criteria:

• Ideal experiment (only independent and dependent variables change , there is no influence of external or additional variables on it)
• Endless experiment (the experiment should continue indefinitely, since there is always the possibility of manifesting a previously unknown factor )
• The experiment of full compliance (the experimental situation should be completely identical to how it would happen “in reality”)

Interaction between experimenter and subject

The problem of organizing the interaction between the experimenter and the subject is considered one of the main ones generated by the specifics of psychological science. Instructions are considered the most common means of direct communication between the experimenter and the subject.

Test subject instruction

Instruction in the psychological experiment is given to the test subject in order to increase the likelihood that the test subject has adequately understood the requirements of the experimenter, therefore, it provides clear information on how the test subject should behave and what he is asked to do. For all subjects within the same experiment, the same (or equivalent) text is given with the same requirements. However, due to the individuality of each subject , in experiments, the psychologist is faced with the task of ensuring an adequate understanding of the instruction by a person. Examples of differences between subjects who determine the feasibility of an individual approach:

• it is enough for one subject to read the instructions once, for others several times,
• some subjects are nervous, while others remain cold-blooded,
• etc.

Requirements for most instructions:

• The instruction should explain the purpose and meaning of the study.
• It should clearly state the content, course and details of the experience.
• It should be detailed and at the same time sufficiently concise.

Sampling Problem

Another challenge facing the researcher is sampling. The researcher must first determine its volume (number of subjects) and composition, and the sample should be representative, that is, the researcher should be able to extend the conclusions drawn from the results of the study of this sample to the entire population from which this sample was collected ^{[6 ]} . For these purposes, there are various strategies for selecting samples and forming groups of subjects. Very often, for simple (one-factor) experiments, two groups are formed - control and experimental . In some situations, it can be difficult to select a group of subjects without creating a systematic selection error .

The general model of the psychological experiment meets the requirements of the scientific method . When conducting a holistic experimental study, the following stages are distinguished ^[7] :

1. Primary problem statement
   • Statement of the psychological hypothesis
2. Work with scientific literature
   • Search for definitions of basic concepts
   • Study bibliography
3. Clarification of a hypothesis and definition of variables
   • Definition of an experimental hypothesis
4. The choice of an experimental tool that allows:
   • Manage an independent variable
   • Register dependent variable
5. Pilot Research Planning
   • Highlighting Additional Variables
   • Choosing a Pilot Plan
6. Sampling and distribution of subjects into groups in accordance with the adopted plan
7. Experiment
   • Experiment preparation
   • Instruction and motivation of subjects
   • Experimentation itself
8. Primary data processing
   • Table compilation
   • Information Form Conversion
   • Data checking
9. Statistical processing
   • The choice of statistical processing methods
   • Transforming an experimental hypothesis into a statistical hypothesis
   • Statistical Processing
10. Interpretation of results and conclusions
11. Research fixation in a scientific report , article , monograph , letter to the editorial office of a scientific journal

The following main advantages that the experimental method has in psychological research can be distinguished ^[8] :

• Possibility to choose the moment of the beginning of the event
• Repeatability of the studied event
• Variability of results by consciously manipulating independent variables
• High accuracy results
• Repeated studies under similar conditions are possible.

1. The method of exclusion (if a certain characteristic is known - an additional variable, then it can be excluded).
2. Method of leveling conditions (used when one or another interfering symptom is known, but it cannot be avoided).
3. The method of randomization (used if the influencing factor is not known and it is impossible to avoid its effect). A way to recheck a hypothesis in different samples, in different places, in different categories of people, etc.

Proponents of the unacceptability of the experimental method in psychology rely on the following points:

• Subject-subject relationship violates scientific rules
• The psyche has the property of spontaneity
• The psyche is too fickle
• The psyche is too unique
• The psyche is too complex an object of study

A psychological and pedagogical experiment, or a formative experiment, is a type of experiment specific to psychology in which the active influence of the experimental situation on the subject should contribute to his mental development and personal growth .

A psychological and pedagogical experiment requires a very high qualification on the part of the experimenter, since the unsuccessful and incorrect use of psychological techniques can lead to negative consequences for the subject.

A psychological and pedagogical experiment is a type of psychological experiment .

In the course of a psychological and pedagogical experiment, it is assumed the formation of a certain quality (which is why it is also called "formative") usually involves two groups: experimental and control. The participants of the experimental group are offered a specific task, which (according to the experimenters) will contribute to the formation of a given quality. This task is not provided to the control group of subjects. At the end of the experiment, the two groups are compared with each other to evaluate the results.

The formative experiment as a method appeared thanks to the theory of activity (A.N. Leontyev, D. B. Elkonin and others), which affirms the idea of ​​the primacy of activity in relation to mental development. During the formative experiment, both subjects and the experimenter perform active actions. The experimenter needs a high degree of intervention and control over the main variables. This distinguishes an experiment from observation or examination.

A natural experiment, or a field experiment, in psychology is a type of experiment that is conducted under the conditions of the normal life of the subject with a minimum of intervention by the experimenter in this process .

When conducting a field experiment, it remains possible, if ethical and organizational considerations allow, to leave the subject in ignorance of his role and participation in the experiment, which has the advantage that the fact of the study will not affect the naturalness of the behavior of the subject.

This method is specific in that the experimenter's ability to control additional variables is limited.

This type of psychological experiment is used, for example, in many studies in social psychology .

One of the authors of the development is Alexander Fedorovich Lazursky

A laboratory experiment, or artificial experiment, is carried out under artificially created conditions (within the framework of a scientific laboratory ) and in which, as far as possible, the interaction of the studied subjects is ensured only with those factors that interest the experimenter. Subjects or a group of subjects are considered subjects, and the factors of interest to the researcher are called relevant stimuli .

The specificity that distinguishes a psychological laboratory experiment from experiments in other sciences consists in the subject-subject nature of the relationship between the experimenter and the subject, expressed in the active interaction between them.

A laboratory experiment is set up in cases where the researcher needs to provide the maximum possible control over the independent variable and additional variables. Additional variables are called irrelevant, or irrelevant, and random stimuli, which in vivo are much more difficult to control.

Control over additional variables

As a control over additional variables, the researcher should: Clarify all irrelevant factors that can be identified. If possible, keep these factors unchanged during the experiment. Track changes in irrelevant factors during the experiment.

The pathopsychological diagnostic experiment has specific differences from the traditional test method of research in terms of the research procedure and analysis of the research results by qualitative indicators (lack of a time limit on the task, the study of how to achieve the result, the possibility of using the help of an experimenter, speech and emotional reactions during the task, etc. P.). Although the stimulus material of the methods itself can remain classic. This is what distinguishes a pathopsychological experiment from a traditional psychological and psychometric (test) study. The analysis of the protocol of pathopsychological research is a special technology that requires certain skills, and the protocol itself is the soul of the experiment ^[9] .

One of the basic principles for constructing experimental techniques aimed at studying the psyche of patients is the principle of modeling ordinary mental activity carried out by a person in work, learning, and communication. Modeling consists in isolating the basic mental acts and actions of a person and provoking or, rather, organizing the execution of these actions in unusual, somewhat artificial conditions. The quantity and quality of these types of models are very diverse; here, analysis, synthesis, and the establishment of various connections between objects, combination, dismemberment, etc. Almost the majority of experiments consists in the fact that the patient is offered to do some work, they are offered him a number of practical tasks or actions “in the mind”, and then carefully record how the patient acted, and if he was mistaken, what caused and what type of these errors were ^[9] .

• Milgram experiment
• Stanford Prison Experiment
• Valins effect

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• Martin D. Psychological experiments. St. Petersburg: Prime-Euroznak, 2004. ISBN 5-93878-136-1
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• Gottsdanker, Robert; "Basics of a psychological experiment" ; Publishing House: M .: Moscow State University, 1982;
• D. Campbell. Models of experiments in social psychology and applied research. M., Progress 1980.
• Gottsdanker R. Fundamentals of a psychological experiment. M.: Moscow State Pedagogical Institute, 1982.P. 51-54.
• Nikandrov V.V. Observation and experiment in psychology. St. Petersburg: Speech, 2002.S. 78.