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Behaviorism

Behaviorism ( Engl. Behavior “behavior”) - a systematic approach to the study of the behavior of people and animals. He suggests that all behavior consists of reflexes , reactions to certain stimuli in the environment, as well as the consequences of an individual story, such as reinforcement and punishment, together with a person’s real motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists tend to take on the important role that heredity plays in determining behavior, they primarily focus on environmental factors.

Behaviorism combines elements of philosophy, methodology and psychological theory. It appeared at the end of the nineteenth century, as a reaction to deep psychology and other traditional forms of psychology, which often could not cope with the experimental verification of predictions. The first derivatives of behaviorism can be traced back to the 19th century, when Edward Thorndike discovered the (a process that included reinforcing behavior through reinforcement).

During the first half of the twentieth century, John B. Watson developed methodological behaviorism, which rejected introspection methods and tried to understand behavior by measuring only observable behavior and events. But it was not until the 1930s that B.F. Skinner suggested that personal events, including thoughts and feelings, are controlled by the same variables as the observed behavior. This became the basis of his philosophy of [1] . While Watson and Pavlov investigated the stimulus-response procedures of classical conditioning, Skinner attached importance to the controlling nature of the consequences and antecedents (or discriminatory stimuli) that create the conditions for behavior; the technique became known as operant conditioning.

Skinner's radical behaviorism has excelled in experimentation thanks to previously unused methods that have opened up new phenomena. But Skinner's avoidance of theories limited his development. Theoretical behaviorism [2] recognized that the historical system, the organism, in the normal state has sensitivity to stimuli and the ability to carry out reactions. In fact, Skinner himself recognized the possibility of what he called “latent” reactions of people, but did not extend this idea to rats and pigeons [3] . A set of latent reactions leads to certain consequences [4] .

Applied Behavior Analysis [5] (Eng. Applied behavior analysis, ABA) - a scientific discipline that uses the principles of radical behaviorism to solve practical problems. Basically, the use of ABA is known as a treatment method for people with developmental disorders, especially the treatment of autism spectrum disorders . However, this method has a wide range of applications, including the prevention of AIDS [6] , the conservation of natural resources [7] , education [8] (including for the systematic improvement of school performance [9] ), gerontology [10] , and maintaining a healthy lifestyle and physical education [11] , industrial safety [12] , language learning [13] , environmental pollution [14] , medical procedures [15] , parenting [16] , use of seat belts [17] , therapy for severe mental disorders [ 18] , sports [19] , zoo management and care for animals [20] , management of organizational behavior and the fight against drug abuse [21] [22] [23] . Moreover, although behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychology have theoretical differences, they complement each other in cognitive-behavioral therapy, which is useful in the treatment of certain pathologies, including phobias , PTSD, and affective disorders .

Versions

There is no universally agreed classification, but names are attached to some areas:

  • Methodological behaviorism : Watson's behaviorism argues that only public events (individual behavior) can be objectively observed, and therefore personal events (thoughts and feelings) should be ignored. [1] [24] This direction became the basis for an early approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
  • Radical behaviorism : Skinner's behaviorism theorizes that it is necessary to take into account the processes within the body, especially personal events (such as thoughts and feelings), and suggests that environmental variables control these internal events in the same way that they control observed behavior. Radical behaviorism forms the philosophy that underlies behavior analysis. Willard Van Orman Quine used many ideas of radical behaviorism in his study of knowledge and language. [24]
  • Teleological behaviorism : post-Skinner, targeted, close to microeconomics . Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.
  • Theoretical behaviorism : post-Skinnerian, recognizes observable internal states (“under the skin” used to mean “unobservable”, but modern technology removes these limitations); dynamic, but eclectic in the choice of theoretical structures, focuses on saving .
  • Biological behaviorism : post-Skinnerian, focuses on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, theory of behavioral systems.
  • : proposed by Arthur W. Staats, this version of behaviorism focuses on the practical control of human behavior. Known for his use of timeouts, token reinforcement, and other methods that have had a significant impact on modern approaches to child development, education, and pathopsychology . [25] [26]

The two subtypes are:

  • Hallian and post-Hallian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological.
  • Target: Behavioral anticipation of Tolman 's cognitive psychology.

Radical behaviorism

B.F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the foundation for an . Various aspects of this view differ from other approaches to behavioral research. In particular, it stands out against the background of methodological behaviorism, since it accepts feelings, states of consciousness, and introspection as behavior that can be studied scientifically. Like methodological behaviorism, it denies reflex as a model of all behavior and considers the science of behavior independent of physiology, which, however, can complement it. Radical behaviorism has much in common with other philosophical positions, such as American pragmatism. [27]

Experimental and conceptual innovations

This philosophical position became significantly stronger due to the success of the early experimental work with Skinner's rats and pigeons, which are collected in the books “Behavior of Organisms” [28] and “Modes of reinforcement” [29] . Of particular importance was his concept of the operant reaction, which seems to be a canonical example of a rat pressing a lever. In contrast to physiological or reflex reactions, the operant is a class of structurally different but functionally equivalent reactions. For example, a rat can press a lever with its left paw, right or tail, but all these reactions equally affect the world around them and have a common consequence. Operand reactions are often presented as a species in which individuals differ, but are united by a common function of reproductive success. There is a very clear distinction between Skinner's theory and stimulus-reaction theory .

Skinner's empirical work expanded early research on the subject of Thorndike and Guthrie's trial and error learning as conceptual reformulations — the notion of “association” or “connection” of Thorndike was rejected; so with methodological ones - the use of a “free operant”, so named because the animal was allowed to react at an arbitrary pace, and not in a series of samples that were determined by the experimenter's procedures. Using this method, Skinner conducted significant experimental work on the effects of various reinforcement regimes and reinforcement feed rates on the speed of operant reactions produced by rats and pigeons. He achieved considerable success in training animals to carry out unexpected reactions, carry out a large number of reactions, and demonstrate empirical patterns at a purely empirical level. Thanks to this, his conceptual analysis became believable. It is thanks to the conceptual analysis that can be traced in his fruitful work “Do you need theories of learning?” [30] , his activity stood out for its accuracy among the rest. In this work, he criticizes what he considered a theoretical weakness, which was then widespread in psychological research. An important offspring of experimental behavior analysis is the . [31]

Respondent (classic) conditioning [32]

Reflex includes respondent behavior that is triggered by a biologically relevant stimulus . When a stimulus (S) automatically triggers (→) a stereotyped reaction (R) or respondent , the relationship S → R is called a reflex. Reflex is inherited in the sense that animals that quickly and accurately responded to certain stimuli had a much greater chance of survival and reproduction than other organisms. For example, animals that are frightened and run away in response to a sudden noise can escape from the predator, and the fright reflex can provide them with an adaptive advantage over those organisms that do not run away or respond more slowly in response to noise. Thus, reflexes are selected throughout the history of the species. And of course, the diversity of species of organisms reflects different sets of reflexes.

Respondent conditioning occurs when a stimulus that is neutral or otherwise has no effect is combined with an unconditional stimulus . For example, responding conditioning manifests itself when a bee buzzing (neutral stimulus) is combined with stinging (unconditional stimulus). Usually, after this conditioning, the buzzing of a bee causes people to avoid it (respondent). At the beginning of the 20th century, Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov studied this type of conditioning in detail. He observed that dogs, when they put food in their mouths, secreted saliva. The relationship between the food stimulus and the salivation reaction is called the unconditioned reflex, which is part of the body’s genetic heritage . However, when Pavlov rang the bell just before feeding the dogs, salivation was caused by the sound of the bell. In this case, a previously neutral stimulus (bell sound) began to control the responding salivation behavior.

Respondent conditioning is one way of adapting organisms to environmental requirements. Grazing animals that react to the sound of rustling grass and run away are less likely to become prey than those animals that are waiting for the appearance of a predator. All species that have been tested, including humans, exhibit this type of conditioning. In terms of human behavior, much of what we like or dislike is based on respondent conditioning. Usually, when something bad or good happens to us, we show an emotional reaction. These emotional reactions can be caused by other people who are present when positive or negative events occur [33] . Thus, respondent conditioning plays an important role in our social relationships, largely determining how we relate to our friends or enemies.

Operand conditioning [32]

Operand conditioning involves controlling behavior with its consequences. B. F. Skinner called such control of behavior operant conditioning , because in a certain situation or situation (S d ), behavior (R) affects the environment and generates a result or consequences (S r ). An operant is any behavior that affects the environment and generates consequences. The result or consequence, in turn, changes the likelihood that the operant will happen again in a similar situation. During operant conditioning, the body exhibits operant behavior based on its genetic heritage ; the operant generates consequences that increase (or decrease) the frequency of reactions in a particular situation [28] . In the laboratory, a rat in a chamber can get food if it pushes a lever when the light is on. If the frequency of pressing the lever increases in the presence of light, operant conditioning has occurred, and the food serves as a reinforcement (S r ) for the operant reaction. In this example, the light (S d ) ultimately creates the conditions for pressing the lever in the sense that the operant will most likely happen if the light is on, but it will be the least likely if the light is off. That is, the frequency of pressing the lever increases in the presence of light (S d ). However, the inclusion of light does not force the lever to be pressed and does not cause this reaction, as is the case with a conditional stimulus; it simply increases the likelihood of a pressure reaction when there is light. Light begins to control behavior due to the history of reinforcements pressing the lever in the presence of light, and the lack of reinforcement when the light is off.

Most of what we usually call arbitrary, intentional, or deliberate action is analyzed as operant behavior. Operand conditioning occurs when a smiling child is picked up. If the frequency of smiles in the presence of adults increases due to social attention, then a smile is an operant and such a change in frequency is the result of conditioning. The appearance of an adult (S d ) creates the conditions for an infant smile only after the passage of operant conditioning. When an adult appears, the frequency of a smile increases; also a smile appears with a low frequency if there is no one around. In a more complex example with video games, the presence of targets on the screen (S d ) creates the conditions for pressing a sequence of keys (operand), which leads to the defeat of the target (S r ) and increases the likelihood of subsequent reactions. Other examples of operant behavior include driving to work by car, talking on the phone for fun, taking notes to give a test, buying groceries in a store, reading a book for fun, writing a course paper for testing, and conducting an experiment to solve a scientific issue. In each of these cases, the operant is selected by the consequences [4] .

Distinction between reinforcements and rewards

The consequences that follow human behavior are often created by other people and are usually called rewards. If a person is offered to do something for a reward, we call it motivation . Reward and motivation are the social consequences of human behavior. A student who studies hard throughout the course may receive a good grade as a reward. Another student may be told that if he studies hard, he will receive a good grade at the end of the course. In either case, the reward or motivation may act as a reinforcing effect or not. Only in the case when a high mark strengthens (or supports) subsequent training in the future is this reinforcement. Thus, reward and motivation is not the same as reinforcement.

One person can work hard for the sake of evaluation, while the other does not put any effort into it. Both receive a reward in the form of the highest mark, but now one of them will study more, and the other will not. Explaining why the reward is reinforcement for one person and not for another, behavioral analysts focus on the individual history of reinforcement. In one family, getting high marks has led to many other reinforcing consequences, such as praise and approval, which are ultimately associated with unconditional reinforcers, including shelter and food. In these conditions, high marks become conditional reinforcers for academic performance. In another family, high grades did not lead to reinforcing consequences and did not act as reinforcements for learning behavior. One rat will work to turn on the light if it has signaled a feed in the past; the other rat will not work without this experience to turn on the light. The reinforcing effects of light on rats and student ratings are dependent on a previous history of reinforcement.

Selection as a causal process [32]

B.F. Skinner regarded psychology as a study of the behavior of organisms. [28] From this point of view, psychology is part of biology . The basic organizational principle of modern biology is evolution through natural selection . Skinner generalized this principle to a wider one - selection by consequences . [4] The selection of consequences works at three levels:

  1. Selection among generations of genes related to survival and reproduction (natural or Darwinian selection)
  2. The selection of behavior during the life of a particular organism (selection using operant conditioning)
  3. The selection of patterns of behavior (customs, traditions, rituals) of a group of people who go beyond the limits of the life of one person (cultural selection).

At each level, environmental-organized consequences select the frequency of genetic, behavioral, or cultural forms.

Selection by consequences is a form of causal explanation. In science, we are talking about two types of causes: immediate and distant. The immediate causes are what physics and chemistry study - the “billiard ball,” a kind of process where we try to isolate a chain of events that has a direct effect. For example, chemical reactions are explained by the description of molecular interactions. In the study of behavior, an explanation through a direct cause may relate to the physiology and biochemistry of the body. For example, pressing a lever that a rat makes to get food, or playing a roulette game in which a person participates, may be accompanied by the release of endogenous opiates or dopamine in the hypothalamus. [34]

In contrast, distant causes are typical of sciences such as evolutionary biology , geology, and astronomy . In this case, we explain some phenomena, pointing to distant events that made them possible. Thus, the reason explaining the characteristics of the species (for example, size, color, excellent vision, etc.) includes the influence of natural selection on the gene pool of the parent population. An evolutionary explanation of the color of species, for example, will include an indication of how this characteristic improves the reproductive success of organisms in a particular ecological environment. That is, the natural selection of color explains why this characteristic is present in the population.

At the behavioral level, the principle of selection by consequences is a form of explanation through a distant cause called functional analysis . When the rat learns to press the lever to get food, we explain this behavior, indicating its past consequences (behavior function). Thus, the current frequency of pressing the lever is explained by the conjugacy between pressing the lever and serving food in the past. The behavior of the rat was selected by his story of reinforcements .

 External variables whose function is behavior provide a basis for what can be called causal or functional analysis. We undertake to predict and control the behavior of an individual organism. This is our “dependent variable” - a consequence, the cause of which we are looking for. Our “independent variables” —the causes of behavior — are external conditions whose function is behavior. The relationship between them - “cause-effect relationships” in behavior - these are the laws of science. The synthesis of these laws, expressed in quantitative terms, gives a comprehensive picture of the body as an acting system.
B.F Skinner [35]		 

Explanations both through the immediate cause and through the distant are acceptable in science. Behavioral analysts have always focused on functional analysis and on selection by consequences (remote cause), but now they are also interested in the analysis of physiological and neurochemical processes (immediate cause). Ultimately, both types of causes will provide a more complete explanation of learning and behavior. However, at a practical level, understanding the conjugations of reinforcement (how the context controls behavior) is enough to predict and control behavior.

 ... This position is sometimes characterized by a person’s vision as a “black box”, ignoring its content. Behavioral analysts would study the invention and use of watches without wondering how they work. But nothing is ignored. Behavioral analysts leave what is inside the black box for those who have the tools and methods necessary for accurate study. There are two unavoidable gaps in any behavioral explanation: one between the effects of the environment and the response of the body, and one between the consequences and the change in behavior as a result of their impact. Only brain science can fill these gaps. By doing this, she completes the explanation; she gives no other explanation for the same things. Ultimately, human behavior will be explained, because it can only be explained in the joint work of ethology, brain science, and behavior analysis. There is no need to wait until the brain science has done its part to analyze behavior. Behavioral facts do not change, and there are enough of them for both science and technology. Brain science may discover other kinds of variables that influence behavior, but it will turn to behavioral analysis for the purest explanation of their effects.
B.F Skinner [36]		 

In the USSR

В СССР бихевиоризм, как и другие психологические направления, рассматривался как буржуазное извращение психологии. Особенно активно критиковал этот подход А. Н. Леонтьев . В основном его критика сводилась к обличению в биологизаторстве бихевиоризма и к тому, что бихевиоризм, по мнению Леонтьева, отрицал роль и вообще наличие внутренних ненаблюдаемых свойств (таких, как цели , мотивы , смысл , предубеждения и прочее) в поведении и деятельности человека.

В то же время к бихевиоризму были близки возникшие в России в 1910—1920-е годы рефлексология (объективная психология) В. М. Бехтерева , физиологическая теория условных рефлексов в поведении животных и человека И. П. Павлова , педологическая концепция активности поведения и деятельности личности А. Ф. Лазурского и М. Я. Басова [37] и объективная психология П. П. Блонского .

Анализ поведения в 21 веке

Ранний термин « (англ.) » является устаревшим с начала 1990-х годов. В настоящее время он подразумевает краткое возрождение методологического бихевиоризма в начале 1950-х годов, а затем ещё одно скорые [ прояснить ] 1970-х до 1980 года. [38] [39] [40] Прикладной анализ поведения — термин, появившийся в этой процветающей области и заменивший модификацию поведения.

(англ.) (ABAI) в настоящий момент включает в себя 32 штата и региональные секции в США. Около 30 дополнительных секций находятся в Европе, Азии, Южной Америке и на юге Тихого Океана. Вдобавок к 34-м ежегодным конференциям, проводимыми ABAI в США и Канаде, ABAI провела пятую ежегодную международную конференцию в Норвегии в 2009. Независимое развитие анализа поведения за пределами США также продолжается. Например, сообщество анализа поведения в Англии [41] было основано в 2013, чтобы продолжать развитие науки и практики. Говоря о мотивации, имеется сильная заинтересованность в разнообразии мотивирующих поведение факторов. [42] [43] [44] [45] Также можно утверждать, что вся индустрия психологического консультирования если не полностью, то частично основана на анализе индивидуального поведения. [46] Некоторые могут предположить, что настоящее быстрое изменение в организационном поведении может быть частично приписано к некоторым из этих или близких к ним теориям. [47]

Сегодня интересы поведенческих аналитиков имеют широкий спектр. Среди них все, начиная от проблем с развитием и аутизма, до культурной психологии, клинической психологии, речевого поведения, управления организационным поведением (OBM — Organizational Behavior Management).

Лечение людей с расстройствами аутистического спектра усиленно распространялось с середины 1990-х годов. Потребность в таком роде услуг способствовало формированию профессиональной программы аттестации под руководством Международной сертификационной комиссии BACB [48] , аккредитированной Национальной комиссией по сертификации (NCCA). На начало 2012 года, существует более 300 обучающих программ, одобренных BACB, которые предлагают около 200 колледжей и университетов по всему миру, а также 11,000 специалистов с сертификатом BACB, большинство из которых работает в США. Ассоциация профессиональных поведенческих аналитиков была сформирована в 2008, для решения проблем связанных с работой специалистов ABA.

Современный анализ поведения совершил серьёзный прорыв в исследованиях и решении прикладных задач, связанных с языком и мышлением благодаря развитию (англ.) (RFT, relational frame theory — пост-скиннеровская теория языка и мышления [49] ). RFT также является эмпирической основой (англ.) (ACT). Более того, исследователи и практикующие RFT/ACT получили значительную известность благодаря сформированной ими организацией — (англ.) (ACBS [50] ). За несколько лет своего существования она быстро разрослась и набрала 5,000 членов по всему миру.

На данный момент наиболее известными журналами являются журнал прикладного анализа поведения [51] , журнал экспериментального анализа поведения [52] , журнал управления организационным поведением [53] , Behavior and Social Issues (BSI [54] ), а также Psychological Record [55] . На сегодня в США существует 14 сертифицированных ABAI программ докторской степени и степени магистра для всеобъемлющего изучения анализа поведения.

Бихевиоризм значим в области педагогики. Так в системе образования США популярны подходы, основанные на идеях бихевиоризма, которые используются как для улучшения показателей — учебной успеваемости, дисциплины , посещаемости у всех детей, так и для инклюзии детей с ограниченными возможностями здоровья и проблемами с социализацией (например, с РАС ) в общеобразовательные классы. Наиболее разработанным является прикладной анализ поведения — технологическая реализация функционального анализа поведения: методы разбора и изменения условий с целью коррекции поведения [9] . Прикладной анализ поведения стал единственной конкретной методикой, рекомендуемой для применения в школах законом о совершенствовании образования лиц с инвалидностью (Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 2004) [56] .

Список выдающихся бихевиористов

  • Дональд М.Байер
  • Альберт Бандура
  • Дермот Барнс-Холмс
  • Владимир Бехтерев
  • Сидней Бижу
  • Эдвин Рей Гатри
  • Стивен Хайес
  • Ричард Херрнштейн
  • Роберт Эпштейн
  • Кларк Халл
  • Брайан Ивата
  • Алан Каздин
  • Фред Келлер
  • Джон Леви
  • Марша Лайнехан
  • Оле Ивар Ловаас
  • Нил Миллер
  • Орвал Хобарт Морер
  • Уильям Баум
  • Джон Стаддон
  • Чарлз Осгуд
  • Иван Павлов
  • Мюррей Сидман
  • Б.Ф Скиннер
  • Кеннет Спенс
  • Эдвард Торндайк
  • Эдвард Толмен
  • John Watson
  • Монтроз Вулф
  • Мекка Чиеза
  • Генри Шлингер
  • Jacques Fresco

See also

  • Организационное поведение
  • Инструментальный рефлекс
  • Дескриптивный бихевиоризм
  • Молекулярный бихевиоризм
  • Молярный бихевиоризм
  • Рефлекс
  • Школы и направления в западной макросоциологии

Notes

  1. ↑ 1 2 Mecca Chiesa. Radical Behaviorism: The Philosophy and the Science . — Boston: Cambridge Center for Behavioral, 1994-03-01. — 241 с. — ISBN 9780962331145 .
  2. ↑ John Staddon. The New Behaviorism: Second Edition . — 2 edition. — New York, NY: Psychology Press, 2014-03-08. — 294 с. — ISBN 9781848726888 .
  3. ↑ Staddon, J. Theoretical behaviorism. Philosophy and Behavior. (45) in press.
  4. ↑ 1 2 3 BF Skinner. Selection by Consequences (англ.) .
  5. ↑ Karola Dillenburger, Michael Keenan. 34 // None of the As in ABA stand for autism: Dispelling the myths . — 2009-07-01. — 193 с.
  6. ↑ DeVries, JE; Burnette, MM; Redmon, WK AIDS prevention: Improving nurses' compliance with glove wearing through performance feedback (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. - 1991. - Vol. 24 , no. 4 . — P. 705—711 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1991.24-705 . — PMID 1797773 .
  7. ↑ Brothers, KJ; Krantz, PJ; McClannahan, LE Office paper recycling: A function of container proximity (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. — 1994. — Vol. 27 , no. 1 . — P. 153—160 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1994.27-153 . — PMID 16795821 .
  8. ↑ Dardig, Jill C.; Heward, William L.; Heron, Timothy E.; Nancy A. Neef; Peterson, Stephanie; Diane M. Sainato; Cartledge, Gwendolyn; Gardner, Ralph; Peterson, Lloyd R.; Susan B. Hersh. Focus on behavior analysis in education: achievements, challenges, and opportunities. — Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall, 2005. — ISBN 0-13-111339-9 .
  9. ↑ 1 2 Варгас Дж. Анализ деятельности учащихся. Методология повышения школьной успеваемости. — М.: Оперант, 2015.
  10. ↑ Gallagher, SM; Keenan M. Independent use of activity materials by the elderly in a residential setting (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. - 2000. - Vol. 33 , no. 3 . — P. 325—328 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.2000.33-325 . — PMID 11051575 .
  11. ↑ De Luca, RV; Holborn, SW Effects of a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule with changing criteria on exercise in obese and nonobese boys (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. - 1992. - Vol. 25 , no. 3 . — P. 671—679 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1992.25-671 . — PMID 1429319 .
  12. ↑ Fox, DK; Hopkins, BL; Anger, WK The long-term effects of a token economy on safety performance in open-pit mining (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. — 1987. — Vol. 20 , no. 3 . — P. 215—224 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1987.20-215 . — PMID 3667473 .
  13. ↑ Drasgow, E.; Halle, JW; Ostrosky, MM Effects of differential reinforcement on the generalization of a replacement mand in three children with severe language delays (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. - 1998. - Vol. 31 , no. 3 . — P. 357—374 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1998.31-357 . — PMID 9757580 .
  14. ↑ Powers, RB; Osborne, JG; Anderson, EG Positive reinforcement of litter removal in the natural environment (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. - 1973. - Vol. 6 , no. 4 . — P. 579—586 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1973.6-579 . — PMID 16795442 .
  15. ↑ Hagopian, LP; Thompson, RH Reinforcement of compliance with respiratory treatment in a child with cystic fibrosis (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. - 1999. - Vol. 32 , no. 2 . — P. 233—236 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1999.32-233 . — PMID 10396778 .
  16. ↑ Kuhn, SAC; Lerman, DC; Vorndran, CM Pyramidal training for families of children with problem behavior (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. - 2003. - Vol. 36 , no. 1 . — P. 77—88 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.2003.36-77 . — PMID 12723868 .
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  20. ↑ Forthman, DL; Ogden, JJ The role of applied behavior analysis in zoo management: Today and tomorrow (англ.) // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis : journal. - 1992. - Vol. 25 , no. 3 . — P. 647—652 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1992.25-647 . — PMID 16795790 .
  21. ↑ Donald M. Baer, Montrose M. Wolf, Todd R. Risley. Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. — 1968. — Т. 1 , вып. 1 . — С. 91—97 . — ISSN 0021-8855 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91 .
  22. ↑ APA Handbook of Behavior Analysis (англ.) . http://www.apa.org.+ Дата обращения 24 февраля 2018.
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  24. ↑ 1 2 BF Skinner. About Behaviorism . — Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2011-08-24. — 303 с. — ISBN 9780307797841 .
  25. ↑ Staats, Arthur W. (1968). Learning, language, and cognition. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
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  27. ↑ Roy A. Moxley. Pragmatic selectionism: The philosophy of behavior analysis. // The Behavior Analyst Today. — Т. 5 , вып. 1 . — С. 108—125 . — DOI : 10.1037/h0100137 .
  28. ↑ 1 2 3 Беррес Фредерик Скиннер: Поведение организмов (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка) . www.operant.ru. Дата обращения 26 февраля 2018. Архивировано 10 сентября 2016 года.
  29. ↑ Schedules of Reinforcement – e-book (англ.) , The BF Skinner Foundation (18 мая 2015). Дата обращения 26 февраля 2018.
  30. ↑ BF Skinner. Are Theories of Learning Necessary? (eng.) . — 1950.
  31. ↑ SQAB | Welcome (англ.) . Society for the Quantitative Analyses of Behavior. Date of treatment March 9, 2018.
  32. ↑ 1 2 3 W. David Pierce, Carl D. Cheney. Behavior Analysis and Learning: Fifth Edition . — 5 edition. — Hove: Psychology Press, 2013-03-18. - 608 p. — ISBN 9781848726154 .
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  34. ↑ Peter Shizgal, Andreas Arvanitogiannis. Gambling on Dopamine (англ.) // Science. — 2003-03-21. - Vol. 299 , iss. 5614 . — P. 1856—1858 . - ISSN 1095-9203 0036-8075, 1095-9203 . — DOI : 10.1126/science.1083627 .
  35. ↑ Вышел перевод фундаментального труда Б.Ф. Скиннера "Наука и человеческое поведение" , nsu.ru . Date of treatment March 8, 2018.
  36. ↑ BF Skinner. The Origins of Cognitive Thought (неопр.) . www.marxists.org. Date of treatment March 8, 2018.
  37. ↑ Басов М. Я. Общие основы педологии. — М.—Л.: ГИЗ, 1931. — 802 с.
  38. ↑ F. Charles Mace. The significance and future of functional analysis methodologies // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. — 1994. — Т. 27 , вып. 2 . — С. 385—392 . — ISSN 0021-8855 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1994.27-385 .
  39. ↑ L Pelios, J Morren, D Tesch, S Axelrod. The impact of functional analysis methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior. // Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. — 1999. — Т. 32 , вып. 2 . — С. 185—195 . — ISSN 0021-8855 . — DOI : 10.1901/jaba.1999.32-185 .
  40. ↑ F. Charles Mace, Thomas S Critchfield. Translational Research in Behavior Analysis: Historical Traditions and Imperative for the Future // Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. — 2010-5. — Т. 93 , вып. 3 . — С. 293—312 . — ISSN 0022-5002 . — DOI : 10.1901/jeab.2010.93-293 .
  41. ↑ UK SBA (неопр.) . uk-sba.org. Date of treatment March 2, 2018.
  42. ↑ Michael Skapinker. The 50 ideas that shaped business today (англ.) . Financial Times (9 April 2013). Date of treatment March 2, 2018.
  43. ↑ Skapinker, Michael (11 December 2002). «Human capitalism: Does treating workers well help business too? A PwC report provides some evidence». London: Financial Times. p. 22.
  44. ↑ Eyres, Harry (19 December 2009). «Peaks in a trough year: The Slow Lane» . Financial Times. p. 22. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
  45. ↑ Kellaway, Lucy (7 January 2015). «My team gets more excited by loo roll than business budgets: Work problems answered» . London: Financial Times. p. 10. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
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  47. ↑ «Reinventing the deal; American capitalism» (417.8961). London: The Economist. 24 October 2015. pp. 21-24
  48. ↑ Behavior Analyst Certification Board (англ.) . www.bacb.com. Date of treatment March 2, 2018.
  49. ↑ Hayes, SC; Barnes-Holmes, D. & Roche, B. (2001) Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. Kluwer Academic: New York.
  50. ↑ What's New | Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (англ.) . contextualscience.org. Date of treatment March 2, 2018.
  51. ↑ Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (англ.) . — DOI : 10.1002/(issn)1938-3703 .
  52. ↑ Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (англ.) . — DOI : 10.1002/(issn)1938-3711 .
  53. ↑ Journal of Organizational Behavior (англ.) . — DOI : 10.1002/(issn)1099-1379 .
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  55. ↑ The Psychological Record (англ.) . springer.com. Date of treatment March 2, 2018.
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Источник — https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Бихевиоризм&oldid=100996749


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