Kalam ( Arabic. الكلام - word , speech ) - in medieval Muslim literature: any reasoning on a religious-philosophical topic, and also, in a special sense, a speculative discipline, giving the tenets of Islam an interpretation based on reason, and not on following religious authority [1] . Kalam is also called rationalist theology [2] and one of the main areas of Arab-Muslim philosophy [3] , noting that it is unacceptable to consider Kalam as Muslim orthodoxy [4] .
Appeal to the mind as a higher authority - this is what united kalam and falsaf and distinguished their representatives ( mutakallim and falyasif) from Salafi dogmatists , on the one hand, and Sufi mystics , on the other. The difference between the Mutakallims and the representatives of the falsaf is that for the first the starting point of the reasoning was the normative principles of Islam and the problems characteristic of this religion, and for the second the normative principles of the mind and the ancient models of philosophizing [1] . It was formed in the VIII century [5] .
Content
History
Kalam emerged and began to develop in the course of discussions that originated in Islam with the emergence of such religious-political groups as Kharijites , cadarites , dzhabrites and Murdzhity , as well as discussions with representatives of non-Muslim beliefs. In such discussions, the method of reasoning inherent in kalam was developed, based on the symbolic-allegorical interpretation of the Qur'an and eliminating references to authorities in arguing its position [1] , and its problems were shaped: the subject of discussion was the unity of God and the relationship between the essence and attributes of the Almighty , the person responsible for their actions (of free will and predestination), the qualities required for the caliph , for the Imam , about which a person is considered a true believer Muslim , some - not eruyuschim, and some - has committed a serious sin , the question of the created or uncreated Qur'an in time [1] .
The method and problems characteristic of kalam are first encountered in the works of al-Jad ibn Dirham (executed ca. 742), who demanded to rely only on reason and expose Koran’s verses to a symbolic-allegorical interpretation ( Tawil ); Al-Jaad included thoughts about the impossibility of ascribing to God eternal positive attributes and about the creation of the Qur'an in time [1] . His pupil Jahm ibn Safwan (executed in 745) developed the ideas of a teacher, spoke about the ability of the mind, regardless of revelation, to distinguish between good and evil. Al-Jad, Jahm ibn Safwan and the disciple of Jahma Dirham ibn Amr anticipated with their views the ideas of the first major school of Kalam, the school of Mutazilism [1] .
The rise of Motazilite Kalam falls on the first half of the 9th century. Beginning with the rule of al-Mutawakkil (847-861), mutazilism was subjected to persecution. Under these conditions, an attempt to legalize Qalam was made by Abul-Hasan al-Ashari (873-935). He became the founder of the new school of Kalam, which was named after him. The largest representatives of asharism were al-Bakkillani (died in 1013), al-Juvayni (died in 1085), ash-Shahrastani and Fakhruddin al-Razi [1] .
From the 13th century begins the convergence of kalam and falsaf . On the part of the Mutakallims, this rapprochement was prepared by the works of Al-Shahrastani and Al-Razi, and from the side of the Falasif - by the works of Nasruddin Al-Tusi [1] .
Key Issues
- On the unity of Allah and his essence and attributes.
- On the creation or inability of the Quran .
- About free will and predestination .
Kalama schools
- Mutazilites
- Asharite
- Maturidites
The Difference Between Asharites and Maturidites
There are minor differences between Asharites and Maturidites regarding minor issues of religion [6] .
| Question | Asharite position | Position of the maturids |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Does Allah have an eternal attribute takvin? | Takvin is not a separate attribute of Allah, but a derivative of the attributes of Will and Power. | Takvin (ability to create) is the eternal attribute of Allah. |
| 2. Is it possible to hear the Speech of Allah? | Can | It is impossible |
| 3. Can Allah be described quality "hikma"? | “Hikma” of Allah refers to “knowledge and wisdom” and cannot be referred to “perfection in creation”. | It can, independently, whether it means “knowledge or wisdom” or “perfection in creation”. |
| 4. What is the reason "Contentment" of Allah? | The contentment (Rida) of Allah is connected with all the actions of the creatures (obedience and disobedience). | Obedience takes place according to the contentment of Allah, and disobedience is not according to its contentment. |
| 5. Could impose on a person more than he can accomplish? | Theoretically, Allah can impose on a person more than he can accomplish, but this is impossible on the basis of revelation. | Allah does not impose on man more than his abilities. |
| 6. Is it possible to reach the mind before taklif? | Questions of taklif can only be understood through revelation ( wahjü ), and not through reason. | Some of the responsibilities assigned to a person ( taklif ) can be reached with the help of reason. |
| 7. What is the difference between happiness and misfortune? | Happiness ( heaven ) and misfortune ( hell ) can be attributed to a person only at the time of death. | An unhappy person may eventually ( ahirath ) be happy and vice versa. |
| 8. Can disbelief be forgiven? | It is rationally permissible for the wrong to receive forgiveness, but it is impossible according to the texts of the revelation. | From the point of view of reason and from the point of view of revelation, it is impossible |
| 9. Could it be that believers will be forever in Hell and vice versa? | Theoretically (from the point of view of reason) this is permissible, but impossible, on the basis of revelation. | Eternal Hell for the believer and Eternal Paradise for the infidel - this is impossible from the point of view of reason and revelation. |
| 10. What is the difference between ism and musamma ? | The name ( ism ) and creature with that name ( musamma ) may differ. | Ism and musamma are one and the same. |
| 11. Can a woman be a prophet ? | Theoretically can. | Can not. |
| 12. As may be called action ( fil ) person? | Fil (in the true sense) refers to the actions of Allah, and the action acquired by a person can be called a film in a figurative sense. | The action of a person is called an acquisition ( kasb ), but not a creation ( halk ), and the action of Allah is called a creation, not an acquisition. |
Notes
- ↑ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Islam: EC, 1991 .
- ↑ Frolova E. A., 1975 .
- ↑ Ibrahim TK, 2010 .
- ↑ Ibrahim TK, 1994 .
- ↑ Round the world .
- ↑ Distinction between Ashari and Maturidi mazhabs (inaccessible link) . annisa-today.ru (August 9, 2014). The appeal date is May 11, 2015. Archived May 18, 2015.
Literature
- Wolf MN Formation of the Kalam philosophy in the framework of the speculative theology of Islam // Medieval Arabic philosophy: Mu'azilit kalam . - Novosibirsk: Novosib. state Univ., 2005. - 80 p.
- Ibragim TK and Sagadeev A.V. Kalam // Islam: Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ed. ed. S.M. Prozorov . - M .: Science ,GRVL , 1991 - pp. 128-129. - ISBN 5-02-016941-2 .
- Kalam / Ibrahim TK K. // New philosophical encyclopedia : in 4 t. / Before. scientific - ed. Council V.S. Stepin . - 2nd ed., Corr. and add. - M .: Thought , 2010. - 2816 p.
- Ibrahim TK Kalam and the question of the "orthodox philosophy" of Islam // Religion in a changing world. - M .: Publishing house of RUDN, 1994. - p. 40-60. - 224 s. - (The philosophical thought of the continents). - ISBN 5-209-00515-1 .
- Ibragim TK The materialistic tendencies in the teachings of the Mutazilites // From the history of the philosophy of the liberated countries. - M. , 1983.
- An-Nashar A.S. Nashat al-Fikr al-Falsafi fi al-islyam. - Cairo, 1977. (are.)
- Sagadeev A.V. Kalam (review) // Classical Islam: Traditional Sciences and Philosophy. - M. , 1988.
- Smirnov A.V. What is behind the term "medieval Arabic philosophy" // Medieval Arabic philosophy: problems and solutions. - M. , 1998.
- RI Sultanov. On the history of the formation of theological rationalism. Comparative analysis of the thinking patterns of kalam and patristics // Rationalistic tradition and modernity: the Near and Middle East. - M. , 1990.
- R. I. Sultanov Kalam // Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. Edited by L. F. Il'ichev , P. N. Fedoseev , S. M. Kovalev , V. G. Panov . - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia , 1983. - p. 240. - 840 p. - 150 000 copies
- Frolova E. A. The History of Medieval Arab-Islamic Philosophy: Textbook. - M. , 1975. - 175 p. - ISBN 5-201-01879-3 .
- Wolfson HA . The Philosophy of the Kalam ( Russian translation of 2 chapters of the book ). - Harvard University Press , 1976. - 810 p.
Links
- Kalam // Encyclopedia " Krugosvet ".