Ancient Rome

Periodization of the history of ancient Rome

Based on the forms of government, which, in turn, reflected the socio-political situation: from the royal government at the beginning of history to the dominant empire at its end.

• The royal period (754/753 - 510/509 BC. E.).
• Republic (510/509 - 30/27 BC. E.)
  • Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC. E.)
  • Late Roman Republic (265 - 31/27 BC), sometimes there are two periods ^[1] :
    • The epoch of the great gains of the republic (265-113 BC)
    • Civil wars and the crisis of the Roman Republic (133—31 / 27 BC)
• Empire (31/27 g. BC. E. - 476 g. E. e.)
  • Early Roman Empire . Principate (31/27 g. BC. E. - 235 g. E.)
  • The crisis of the III century (235—284)
  • Late Roman Empire . Dominatus (284–476)

The royal period and the republic

During the tsarist period, Rome was a small state that occupied only a part of the territory of Latium , the region of the Latins . In the period of the Early Republic of Rome significantly expanded its territory thanks to numerous wars. After the Pyrrhic War, Rome began to reign supremely over the Apennine peninsula , although the vertical control system of subordinate territories at that time was not yet established. After the conquest of Italy, Rome became a prominent player in the Mediterranean , which soon led him to conflict with Carthage , a large state founded by the Phoenicians in northern Africa. In a series of three Punic Wars, the Carthaginian state was completely defeated, and the city itself was destroyed. At this time, Rome also began its expansion to the East, subjugating Illyria , Greece, and then Asia Minor, Syria, and Judea .

Roman Empire

In the I century BC. er Rome was shaken by a series of civil wars, which resulted in the final winner, Octavian Augustus , formed the foundations of the principality system and founded the Julio-Claudian dynasty , which, however, did not last in power for a century. The heyday of the Roman Empire came in a relatively quiet time of the II century, but already the III century was filled with struggle for power and, as a result, political instability, and the foreign political position of the empire was complicated. The establishment of the dominat system by Diocletian stabilized the situation for some time by concentrating power in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus. In the 4th century, under the blows of the Huns, the division of the empire into two parts was finalized, and Christianity became the state religion of the whole empire. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire became the object of active resettlement of Germanic tribes , which finally undermined the unity of the state. The overthrow of the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Augustus by the German leader Odoacer on September 4, 476, is considered the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire .

A number of researchers ( S. L. Utchenko worked in this direction in Soviet historiography ) believe that Rome created its original civilization, which originated in a special value system that developed in the Roman civil community due to the peculiarities of its historical development. These features included the establishment of a republican form of government as a result of the struggle of patricians and plebeians , as well as the almost continuous wars of Rome, which turned it from a small Italian town into the capital of a great power. Under the influence of these factors evolved ideology and value system of Roman citizens. First of all, it was determined by patriotism - the idea of ​​the special God's chosen people of the Roman people and the very fate of their victories, of Rome as the highest value, the duty of a citizen to serve him with all his might. For this, a citizen had to have courage, fortitude, honesty, loyalty, dignity, moderation in lifestyle, the ability to obey iron discipline in war, established law and ancestral custom in peacetime, honor the gods-patrons of their families, rural communities and Rome itself . The Roman law , the concept of equality and the ability to summon any member of the nobility or an official (with the exception of the emperor) became a unique feature of the ancient Roman civilization.

Legislative powers in the classical period of the history of ancient Rome were divided between the magistrates , the senate and the comitia .

Magistrates could introduce a bill (rogatio) to the Senate, where it was discussed. Initially, there were 100 members in the Senate, during the majority of the history of the Republic there were about 300 members, Sulla doubled the number of members, and later their numbers varied. The place in the senate was taken over after passing the ordinary magistracies, but the censors had the right to conduct lustration of the senate with the possibility of excluding individual senators. The Senate gathered in Kalendam, Nonam and Ida each month, as well as any day in the case of the extraordinary convocation of the Senate. At the same time, there were some restrictions on the convocation of the Senate and Comitia if the appointed day was declared unfavorable for one or another “sign”.

The committees had the right to vote only for ( U ti R ogas - UR) or against ( A ntiquo - A) and could not discuss and make their own adjustments to the proposed bill. The bill approved by the comitia received the force of law. According to the laws of dictator Quint Publius Philo 339 BC. er , approved by the national assembly (comitia), the law became mandatory for the whole nation.

The highest executive power in Rome ( empires ) was delegated to the highest magistrates . In this case, the question of the content of the very concept of empires remains debatable ^[2] . Ordinary magistrates were elected by comitia .

Emergency powers and, in contrast to ordinary magistrates, dictatorships , elected in special cases and for no more than 6 months, have been unaccountable. With the exception of the emergency dictatorial magistracy, all posts in Rome were collegiate.

Laws

As for the Romans, for them the task of war was not just the victory over the enemy or the establishment of peace; the war ended only to their satisfaction, when the former enemies became “friends” or allies (socii) of Rome. The goal of Rome was not the subordination of the whole world of power and imperium (dominion - lat.) Of Rome, but the spread of the Roman system of unions to all countries of the earth. Roman idea and expressed Virgil , and it was not just a fantasy of the poet. The Roman people themselves, populus Romanus, owed their existence to such a war-born partnership, namely, the alliance between patricians and plebeians , the end of internal discord between which was put on by the famous Leges XII Tabularum . But even this ancient document of its history, sanctified by the Romans, did not consider God-inspired; they preferred to believe that Rome sent a commission to Greece to study the local systems of law. Thus, the Roman Republic, itself based on the law - the indefinite union between patricians and plebeians - used the leges tool mainly for treaties and administration of the provinces and communities belonging to the Roman system of unions, in other words, to the ever-expanding group of Roman socii that formed societas Romana.

- H. Arendt [1]

The social structure of ancient Rome

At the initial stage of development, Roman society consisted of two main classes - the patricians and the plebeians . According to the most common version of the origins of these two main classes, the patricians are the native inhabitants of Rome, and the plebeians , the newcomers, who had, however, civil rights. Patricians were combined first in 100, and then in 300 genera. Initially, the plebeians were forbidden to marry patricians , which ensured the closeness of the patrician class. In addition to these two classes, patrician clients existed in Rome (in this case, the patrician acted as a patron in relation to the client) and slaves .

Over time, the social structure as a whole has become significantly more complicated. Horsemen appeared - persons of not always noble birth, but engaged in trading operations (trade was considered unworthy of patricians) and considerable wealth concentrated in their hands. Among the patricians , the most notable births stood out, and part of the births gradually faded away. Around III. BC er The patriciate merges with the riders into a nobility .

However, the mobility was not the only one. In accordance with the Roman notions, the nobility ( Latin nobilitas ) of the clan to which a person belongs determined the degree of respect for him. Each had to correspond to its origin, and both unworthy occupations (for example, trade) by a person of noble origin and non-nominal persons who achieved a high position (they were called the Latin homo novus - a new person ^[3] ) were equally condemned. Citizens also began to be divided into lat. cives nati - citizens by birth and lat. cives facti - citizens who have been granted rights under a specific law. People of various nationalities (especially the Greeks ) also began to flock to Rome; they did not have political rights, but played an important role in the life of society ( peregriny ). There were freedmen ( lat. Libertinus - libertines), that is, slaves who were granted freedom.

Marriage and Family

In the early period of the history of Rome, it was considered a goal and the main essence of a citizen’s life is the presence of their own home and children, while family relationships did not obey the law, but were regulated by tradition.

The head of the family was called “landlady”, in his power were children, wife and other relatives (in the families of the upper class, the family also included slaves and servants). The power of the father was that he could marry or dissolve a daughter at will, sell children into slavery, he could also recognize or not recognize his child. Patria potestas also extended to adult sons and their family: only with the death of a father did sons become full citizens and heads of their families.

Until the late Republic, there was a kind of marriage cum manu , “at hand,” that is, the daughter, getting married, fell into the power of the head of her husband’s family. Later this form of marriage fell into disuse and marriages began to be concluded with sine manu , “without a hand,” in which the wife was not under the authority of her husband and remained in the power of her father or guardian. Ancient Roman marriage , especially in the upper classes, often consisted of financial and political interests ( see mesalliance ).

Several families with family ties formed the genus ( gens ), the most influential of which played an important role in political life.

Fathers of families, as a rule, entered into marriages between their children, guided by the prevailing moral standards and personal considerations. Father could marry a girl from 12 years of age, and marry a young man from 14 years old.

Roman law provided for two forms of marriage:

• The woman passed from under the authority of the father under the authority of the husband, that is, she was accepted into the family of her husband.
• The woman after marriage remained a member of the old family, while claiming the inheritance of the family. This case was not a major one and was more like cohabitation than marriage, since at almost any moment the wife could leave her husband and return home.

Regardless of which form young people preferred, marriage was preceded by betrothal between young people. During the betrothal, the young gave the marriage vow. Each of them, when asked whether he promises to marry, answered: "I promise." The groom handed the future wife a coin as a symbol of the marriage union concluded between the parents and the iron ring worn by the bride on the ring finger of her left hand.

At weddings, all matters relating to the organization of the wedding celebration were handed over to the administrator, a woman who enjoyed general respect. The steward brought the bride into the hall and passed on to her fiance. The show was accompanied by religious rituals in which the woman played the role of the priestess of the hearth. After the feast, the bride and groom went to the house of her husband at the parents' house. The bride had to theatrically resist and cry. The steward stopped the stubbornness of the girl, taking her out of her mother's embrace and passing her spouse.

Celebrations associated with the emergence of a new family member, began on the eighth day after birth and lasted three days. The father raised the child from the ground and gave the name to the baby, thereby announcing his decision to take him into the family. After that, the invited guests gave the baby gifts, usually amulets, the purpose of which was to protect the child from evil spirits.

It was not necessary to register a child for a long time. Only when the Roman reached adulthood and put on a white toga, he became a citizen of the Roman state. He was represented before the officials and entered into the list of citizens.

For the first time, the birth of newborns was introduced by Octavian Augustus at the dawn of a new era, obliging citizens to register a baby within 30 days from the moment of birth.Registration of children held in the temple of Saturn, where the office of the governor and the archive. This confirmed the name of the child, his date of birth. Confirmed his free origin and the right of citizenship.

Position of women

Женщина находилась в подчинении мужчины, потому что она, по словам Теодора Моммзена, «принадлежала только семье и не существовала для общины». В богатых семьях женщине отводилось почётное положение, она занималась управлением хозяйства. В отличие от гречанок, римлянки могли свободно появляться в обществе, причём, несмотря на то, что высшей властью в семействе обладал отец, они были защищены от его произвола. Основной принцип построения римского общества — это опора на элементарную ячейку общества — семью (фамилию).

Глава семейства — отец, беспредельно властвовал в семье, и власть его в семье была оформлена законодательно. В состав семьи входили не только отец и мать, но и сыновья, их жёны и дети, а также незамужние дочери.

Семья включала в себя и рабов и другое домашнее имущество.

Власть отца распространялась на всех членов семьи.

Практически все решения относительно членов семьи отец принимал сам.

При рождении ребёнка он определял судьбу новорождённого; он либо признавал ребёнка, либо приказывал умертвить, либо бросал без всякой помощи.

Отец единолично владел всем имуществом семьи. Даже достигнув совершеннолетия и женившись, сын оставался бесправным в фамилии. Он не имел права владеть какой-либо недвижимой собственностью при жизни отца. Лишь после смерти отца, в силу завещания, получал его имущество по наследству. Беспредельное господство отца существовало на протяжении всей Римской империи, как и право распоряжаться судьбой близких. В поздний период существования Римской империи от неугодных детей отцы избавлялись из-за экономических трудностей и общего упадка моральных устоев общества.

В римских семьях женщина имела большие права, так как на неё возлагались обязанности по ведению домашнего хозяйства. Она была полновластная хозяйка в своём доме. Считалось хорошим тоном, когда женщина хорошо налаживала семейный быт, освобождая время мужа для более важных государственных дел. Зависимость женщины от мужа ограничивалась, в сущности, имущественными отношениями; владеть и распоряжаться имуществом без разрешения мужа женщина не могла.

Римская женщина свободно появлялась в обществе, ездила в гости, бывала на торжественных приёмах. Но занятие политикой не было женским делом, ей не полагалось присутствовать на собраниях народа.

Education

Мальчиков и девочек начинали обучать с семи лет. Богатые родители предпочитали домашнее обучение. Бедные пользовались услугами школ. Тогда же зародился и прообраз современного образования: дети проходили три стадии образования: начальное, среднее и высшее. Главы семейства, заботясь о получении образования детьми, старались нанять своим детям учителей-греков или заполучить для обучения раба-грека.

Тщеславие родителей заставляло их отправлять своих детей в Грецию для получения высшего образования.

На первых этапах обучения детей преимущественно учили писать и считать, давали сведения по истории, праву и словесности.

В Высшей Школе проходило обучение ораторскому искусству. При практических занятиях ученики выполняли упражнения, заключающиеся в составлении речей на заданную тему из истории, мифологии, литературы или из общественной жизни.

За пределами Италии образование получали преимущественно в Афинах , на острове Родос , где также совершенствовались в ораторском искусстве, получали представление о различных философских школах. Особенно актуальным обучение в Греции стало после того, как Гней Домиций Агенобарб и Луций Лициний Красс , будучи цензорами в 92 до н. er , закрыли латинские риторические школы ^[4] .

В возрасте 17—18 лет молодому человеку предстояло оставить учение и пройти военную службу.

Римляне заботились и о том, чтобы женщины получили образование в связи с той ролью, которую они имели в семье: организатор семейного быта и воспитатель детей в раннем возрасте. Были школы, где девочки учились вместе с мальчиками. И считалось почётным, если про девочку говорили, что она образованная девица. В Римском государстве уже в I веке новой эры приступили к обучению рабов, так как рабы и вольноотпущенные начали играть всё более заметную роль в экономике государства. Рабы становились управляющими в имениях и занимались торговлей, ставились надсмотрщиками над другими рабами. Грамотных рабов привлекали в бюрократический аппарат государства, многие рабы были педагогами и даже архитекторами.

Грамотный раб стоил дороже неграмотного, так как его можно было использовать для квалифицированной работы. Образованные рабы назывались главной ценностью римского богача Марка Лициния Красса ^[5] .

Бывшие рабы, вольноотпущенники, постепенно стали составлять значительную прослойку в Риме. Они стремились занять место служащего, управленца в государственном аппарате, заниматься коммерческой деятельностью, ростовщичеством. Стало проявляться их преимущество перед римлянами, которое состояло в том, что они не чуждались любой работы, считали себя ущемлёнными и проявляли упорство в борьбе за своё место под солнцем. В конечном итоге они смогли добиться юридического равноправия, оттеснить римлян от управления государством.

Войско

Римское войско почти за всё время своего существования было, как доказала практика, самым передовым среди остальных государств Древнего мира, пройдя путь от народного ополчения до профессиональной регулярной пехоты и конницы с множеством вспомогательных подразделений и союзническими формированиями. При этом главной боевой силой всегда была пехота (в эпоху Пунических войн фактически появилась прекрасно показавшая себя морская пехота ). Основными преимуществами римской армии были мобильность, гибкость и тактическая обученность, что позволяло ей действовать в условиях различного рельефа местности и в суровых погодных условиях.

При стратегической угрозе Риму или Италии либо достаточно серьёзной военной опасности ( tumultus ) прекращались все работы, останавливалось производство и в армию набирались все, кто мог просто нести оружие — жители этой категории назывались tumultuarii ( subitarii ), a войско — tumultuarius ( subitarius ) exercitus . Так как обычная процедура набора занимала больше времени, главнокомандующий этим войском магистрат выносил из Капитолия специальные знамёна: красное, обозначающие набор в пехоту, и зелёное — в конницу, после чего традиционно объявлял: «Qui respublicam salvam vult, me sequatur» («Кто хочет спасти республику, пусть последует за мной»). Военная присяга также произносилась не индивидуально, а вместе.

Система наград

Рим смотрел на земли завоёванных им провинций, как на свои родовые поместья (praedia populi Romani), и почти все классы римского населения стремились извлечь из этого собственную выгоду: нобилитет — управляя провинциями, всадники — занимаясь в них откупами, простые граждане — служа в легионах и обогащаясь военной добычей. Лишь столичный пролетариат, свободный от воинской повинности, не участвовал в общем дележе; впрочем государство гарантировало всем своим верноподданным продажу завозимого из провинций хлеба за более низкую цену. Это положение не касалось лишь рабов и иностранцев. Также оно не касалось вольноотпущенных.

Affairs worthy of the Roman, especially from the nobility , recognized politics , war, agriculture , the development of law ( civil and sacred) and historiography . On this basis evolved the early culture of Rome. Foreign influences, primarily Greek , penetrated through the Greek cities of the south of modern Italy, and then directly from Greece and Asia Minor , were perceived only to the extent that they did not contradict the Roman value system or were processed in accordance with it. In turn, the Roman culture in its heyday had a huge impact on the neighboring nations and the subsequent development of Europe .

The early Roman worldview was characterized by a sense of being a free citizen with a sense of belonging to a civic community and a priority of state interests over personal ones, combined with conservatism, which consisted in following the morals and customs of the ancestors. In II - I centuries. BC er there was a departure from these attitudes and individualism intensified, the individual became opposed to the state, even some traditional ideals were reinterpreted. As a result, in the era of the emperors, a new formula for the management of Roman society was born - bread and circuses should be in abundance. Well, a certain decline in morals among the crowd of citizens was always perceived by despotic rulers with a certain degree of favor.

Language

Latin, the appearance of which belongs to the middle of III millennium BC. e., was a member of the Italic group of the Indo-European family of languages. In the process of the historical development of ancient Italy, the Latin language supplanted other Italic languages ​​and, over time, occupied a dominant position in the western Mediterranean. At the beginning of I millennium BC. er The Latin language was spoken by the population of a small region of Lacius ( lat. Latium ), located in the west of the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, along the lower Tiber River . The tribe that inhabited Lacius was called Latins ( Lat. Latini ), his language was Latin. The center of this area became the city of Rome , after whose name the Italic tribes united around it began to call themselves Romans ( lat. Romans ).

Separate several stages of development of Latin:

• Archaic Latin.
• Classical Latin.
• Postclassical Latin.
• Late Latin.

Religion

Ancient Roman mythology in many aspects is close to Greek , even to the direct borrowing of individual myths. However, in the religious practice of the Romans, animistic superstitions, associated with the worship of spirits: geniuses , penates , lares , lemurs and mans , also played a large role. Also in ancient Rome there were numerous boards of priests.

Although religion played a significant role in traditional Roman society, by the 2nd century BC. er a significant part of the Roman elite already belonged to religion indifferently. In the I century BC. er Roman philosophers (especially Titus Lucretius Kar and Mark Tullius Cicero ) largely revise or question many of the traditional religious positions.

At the turn n. er Octavian Augustus took measures to establish the official worship of the empire.

At the end of the 1st c. Christianity arose in the Jewish diasporas of the cities of the Roman Empire, which later became representatives of other peoples of the empire. At first it caused only suspicion and hostility from the imperial authorities, in the middle of the 3rd century. it was forbidden, the persecution of Christians began throughout the Roman Empire. However, as early as 313, the emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan , which allowed Christians to freely practice their religion, build temples, and hold public office. Christianity then gradually turned into a state religion. In the second half of IV. began the defeat of the pagan temples, the Olympic Games were banned.

Art, music, literature

Clothing

Morals

Same-sex relationships in ancient Roman society cannot be characterized from the point of view of modern Western culture. In Latin, there are no words to refer to concepts that correspond to today's concepts of heterosexuality or homosexuality . Any sexual relations were characterized by bipolarity - an active, dominant, “male” role on the one hand, and a passive, obeying, “female” role - on the other.

The social evolution of the Roman society was first investigated by the German scientist G. B. Niebuhr . Ancient Roman life and life based on developed family law and religious rites.

For better use of daylight, the Romans usually got up very early, often around four o'clock in the morning, and after breakfast, they began to engage in public affairs. Like the Greeks, the Romans ate 3 times a day. Early in the morning - the first breakfast, around noon - the second, in the late afternoon - lunch.

In the first centuries of Rome, the inhabitants of Italy ate mostly thick, steeply cooked porridge from spelled , millet , barley or bean flour, but already at the dawn of Roman history in the household not only porridge was cooked, but bread cakes were also baked. Culinary art began to develop in the III. BC er and during the empire reached unprecedented heights.

Roman science inherited a number of Greek studies, but unlike them (especially in the field of mathematics and mechanics), it was mostly applied in nature. For this reason, it was the Roman numbering and the Julian calendar that became worldwide. At the same time, its characteristic feature was the presentation of scientific questions in literary and entertaining form. Jurisprudence and agricultural sciences have achieved particular heyday; a large number of works were devoted to architecture and town planning and military technology. The largest representatives of the natural sciences were encyclopedic scholars Guy Pliny Seconds the Elder , Marc Terentius Varro and Lucius Annei Seneca .

Ancient Roman philosophy developed mainly in the fairway of the Greek , with which it was largely associated. The most widespread philosophy received stoicism .

Remarkable success was achieved by the Roman science in the field of medicine . Among the prominent physicians of ancient Rome can be noted: Dioskorida - pharmacologist and one of the founders of botany , Soran Efessky - obstetrician and pediatrician , Claudius Galen - a talented anatomist , who revealed the functions of nerves and brain .

Encyclopedic treatises written in the Roman era remained the most important source of scientific knowledge throughout most of the Middle Ages.

Roman culture with its developed ideas about the expediency of things and actions, about a person’s duty to himself and the state, about the meaning of law and justice in the life of society complemented ancient Greek culture with its desire for knowledge of the world, a developed sense of measure, beauty, harmony, a pronounced game element . Ancient culture, as a combination of these two cultures, became the basis of European civilization.

The cultural heritage of ancient Rome is traced in scientific terminology, architecture, literature. Latin has long been the language of international communication of all educated people in Europe. Until now, it is used in scientific terminology. On the basis of the Latin language in the former Roman possessions arose Romance languages , spoken by the peoples of much of Europe. Among the most outstanding achievements of the Romans is the Roman law created by them, which played a huge role in the further development of legal thought. It was in the Roman dominion that Christianity , the religion that united all European nations and greatly influenced the history of mankind, arose, and then became the state religion. ^[6]

Interest in the study of Roman history arose, in addition to the works of Machiavelli , also during the Enlightenment in France.

Montesquieu wrote the book "Discourses on the causes of the greatness and decline of the Romans . "

The first major work was the work of Edward Gibbon's “The History of the Decline and Crash of the Roman Empire”, which covered the period from the end of the 2nd century to the fall of the fragment of the empire - Byzantium in 1453 . Like Montesquieu, Gibbon appreciated the virtue of the Roman citizens, however, the expansion of the empire on it began already at Commodus , and Christianity became the catalyst for the collapse of the empire, undermining its foundations from the inside.

Niebuhr became the founder of the critical direction and wrote the work "Roman History", where it was brought to the First Punic War. Niebuhr made an attempt to establish how the Roman tradition originated. In his opinion, the Romans, like other nations, existed a historical epic, preserved mainly in noble birth. Niebuhr paid some attention to ethnogenesis, viewed from the angle of the formation of the Roman community.

In the Napoleonic era appeared the work of V. Duryuy "History of the Romans", which emphasized the then popular Caesarian period.

A new historiographic milestone opened the work of Theodore Mommsen , one of the first major researchers of the Roman heritage. A large role was played by his volume work “Roman History” , as well as “Roman State Law” and “Collection of Latin Inscriptions” (“Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum”).

Later came the work of another specialist, G. Ferrero - "The greatness and fall of Rome." The work by I. M. Grevs "Essays on the history of Roman land ownership, mainly in the era of the Empire" was published, where, for example, information appeared on the economy of Pomponius Attica, one of the largest landowners of the end of the Republic, and Horace was considered the model of the average estate of the August era.

Against the hypercriticism of the work of the Italian E. Pais, who denied the authenticity of the Roman tradition until the 3rd century AD er , made De Sanctis in his "History of Rome", where, on the other hand, information about the royal period was almost completely denied.

Soviet historiography

The study of Roman history in the USSR was closely associated with Marxism-Leninism , which did not have specialized works in its basis and relied on such frequently cited works as “Family Origin, Private Property and the State”, “Chronological Extracts” ”,“ Bruno Bauer and Early Christianity ”, etc. The emphasis was on slave uprisings and their role in Roman history as well as agrarian history.

A great place was given to the study of the ideological struggle ( S. L. Utchenko , PF Preobrazhensky ), which was seen even in the most favorable periods of the empire ( N. A. Mashkin , E. M. Shtaerman , A. D. Dmitrev, and others.) .

The ideology of the Gracchi movement was studied by S. I. Protasova.

The revolts of slaves were studied by A. V. Mishulin , S. A. Zhebelev, and others, while the agrarian questions were mainly dealt with M. Ye. Sergeenko , E. M. Shtaerman and V. I. Kuzishchin .

Attention was also paid to the conditions of transition from the Republic to the empire, considered, for example, in the work of N. A. Mashkin “Principate of Augustus” or in “Sketches on the history of ancient Rome” by V. S. Sergeev , and the provinces, in the study of which A. B .Ranovich .

Among those who studied the relations of Rome with other states stood out A. G. Bokshchanin .

Since 1937, the Herald of Ancient History began to appear, where articles on Roman history and archaeological excavations were often published.

After a break caused by the Great Patriotic War, in 1948 the “History of Rome” by S.I. Kovalev and the “History of the Roman people” by critic VN Dyakov were published. In the first work, the Roman tradition is considered in many respects authentic, in the second, doubt was expressed on this score.

• Chronology of the history of ancient Rome
• Chronological list of ancient Roman art
• Cambridge Ancient History
• Sources of knowledge about the Roman Empire

• История Древнего Рима
• X Legio — Боевая техника древности (включая фрагменты русских переводов римских авторов и статьи по военному делу Древнего Рима)
• История Древнего мира
• Трёхмерные реконструкции древнеримской архитектуры
• Roman Glory Antique War
• History, culture and art of ancient Rome
• The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev
• The Art of Ancient Rome - Photo Gallery of Stevan Kordich (eng.)
• The Roman Empire