Garlic

The Russian word "garlic" goes back to praslav. * česnъkъ formed from * česnъ - a suffixal derivative of the verb * česti “scratching, scrape, tear, tear” with the etymological meaning “split, split (onion)” ^{[3] [4]} .

In Latin, garlic is called alium (from the first century AD, the spelling variant appears allium ). This word has no generally accepted etymology. There is a version that it comes from āla “wing” (according to this version, a wing means garlic clove) ^[5] . This word was used as a scientific name - Allium ( Onion ) - for a broad genus, which, in addition to garlic, includes onions , wild garlic and many other plants.

The specific epithet in the scientific (Latin) name of garlic, sativum , is translated as “sowing campaign”, therefore, in the literature, such variants of the Russian naming of this species as “sowing onion” and “sowing garlic” are rarely found in the literature. There is also the name of this species "onion garlic" ^[2] .

Homeland is Central Asia . Garlic was cultivated in the mountainous regions of Tajikistan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , in the north of Iran , in Afghanistan and Pakistan ^[6] . AI Vvedensky suggested that garlic originated from a long-pointed onion ( Allium longicuspis ) growing on the bottom of gorges in the mountains of Turkmenistan , on Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai ^[2] . Later studies confirmed the correctness of this assumption and showed that garlic is genetically indistinguishable from long-pointed onions ^{[7] [8]} .

The root system is fibrous.

The bulb is complex, it forms in the axils of its scales from 2 to 50 onion- “children” (commonly referred to as “teeth” or “teeth”) ^[9] , each of which is covered with hard leathery scales ^[10] . The bulb is round, somewhat flattened, oval-ribbed to the middle. The bulbs can be white, yellowish, dark purple, pink-purple. With the help of onions, garlic multiplies vegetatively, which is used in culture ^[9] . Outer bulbous oblong, thickened by middle; outer surface is convex, inner surface is concave.

Leaves are incomplete, narrow, lanceolate-elongated, grooved, from the bottom with a keel ^[11] , centimeter wide, pointed at the end, entire edge ^[12] , erect or drooping, 30–100 cm in length. Each subsequent leaf sprouts from the inside of the previous one, thereby forming a false stem , more durable than that of onions .

Peduncle (flowering stem, arrow) - from 60 to 150 cm high ^[10] , almost half dressed with leaf sheaths ^[11] , twists into a spiral before flowering and ends with an inflorescence in the form of an umbrella ^[13] , which is covered with foil before flowering membrane.

The inflorescence is a simple spherical umbrella consisting of sterile flowers , aerial breeding bulbous bulbs and a thick blanket ( wrapper ). Flowers on long pedicels , with a simple (that is, without differentiation into a calyx and a rim ), corolla perianth , consisting of six petals ^[11] . Perianth petals are white or pale lilac, with one vein, smooth, about 3 mm long. There are six stamens ^{[2] [14]} .

The fruit is a box . Garlic seed almost does not give ^[2] .

The number of chromosomes : 2n = 16, 48 ^[15] .

Ancient cultural plant , cultural forms are divided into rifle and ordinary (non-strelka).

Agrotechnics

There are spring and winter garlic. Winter garlic prefers sandy soils ^[16] , and spring grows well on medium and light loamy soils ^[17] . Winter varieties multiply vegetatively by three types of planting material ^[18] :

• teeth (lateral buds) of the bulbs;
• single-toothed bulbs (seedlings) grown from aerial onions;
• bulbs (bulbs) in the crop through winter.

Garlic is light-requiring, and the soil should be sufficiently moist ^[19] .

Varieties

As of December 2011, 19 varieties of winter garlic and 7 varieties of spring garlic have been entered into the State Register of Breeding Achievements ^[20] .

Garlic

In countries such as Italy , Korea and China, garlic consumption per capita reaches 8–12 cloves per day ^[21] .

Pests and Diseases

Garlic suffers from diseases and pests, many of which are characteristic of species of the genus Allium , some affect other bulbous plants, and sometimes have a wider range of hosts. Most diseases and pests are endemic in nature and vary depending on the region or growing conditions. Diseases of cultivated species of onions do not affect wild-growing or very rarely occur ^[23] .

A non-communicable disease is yellowing and drying of the tips of the leaves, sometimes death of the lower leaves, this is due to the low soil moisture ^[24] .

Infectious diseases

Garlic is susceptible to fungal and bacterial diseases; A viral disease that is found in other onion species — mosaic or yellow dwarfism — does not affect garlic ^[25] .

Bacterial rot can affect garlic both during the growing season and during storage. Called by the bacteria Erwinia carotovora (syn. Bacillus cepivorus ), Erwinia aroideae , Pseudomonas xanthochlora . Manifested by the appearance of brown sores of various shapes and sizes on the teeth of the bulbs, the teeth become vitreous, take the form of "frostbitten". Perhaps the appearance of pearl color and a sharp putrid odor. Garlic, along with bulb onions, belongs to the species most affected by bacterial rot ^[26] .

Fusarium is one of the most dangerous diseases of garlic ^[27] . Called by the fungus Gibberella pulicaris (synonymous with Fusarium sambucinum ) and leads to yellowing of the leaves, on which a pinkish spore appears. Spores infect the bulb from the bottom and cause the death of the roots. Affected bulbs during storage after a month covered with white or pinkish mycelium and rot. The disease occurs in the middle zone, but is predominantly widespread in more southerly regions, where the fungus tolerates winter in the soil ^[28] . The frequency of occurrence of fusarium wilt on garlic in some years reaches 70%, which causes a crop loss in the amount of 17.8 to 50% during the growing season and storage. The danger of this disease lies not only in a significant reduction in yield, but also in the ability of pathogens to produce a wide range of mycotoxins that are dangerous to human and animal health ^[29] .

In addition, garlic is subject to the following fungal diseases ^[19] :

• Peronospora , or downy mildew (see Onion peronospora ) is caused by the Oomycete Peronospora destructor . Garlic is a type of onion that is affected by peronospora in a relatively lesser degree. The disease is common in all areas of cultivation, except in regions with hot and dry climates. The parasite is able to develop for a long time in the tissues of the plant, without causing the appearance of noticeable signs of pathology, the disease begins to manifest itself during the sporulation period of the fungus. A gray scurf appears on the leaves and the arrow, then these parts of the plant dry out, and the bulbs are maturation. Such bulbs are infected with spores that can germinate when planting next year ^[30] .
• Black mold or stemfiliosis is caused by the semi-saphymic ascomycete Stemphylium allii . It affects garlic when grown in a warm and humid climate, for other types of onions is a secondary disease associated with peronospora. Black mold affects the leaves, which appear yellowish spots, then covered with dark moldy plaque; the disease leads to a decrease in yield ^[31] .
• Black neck rot is a disease of some species of onions , caused by the fungus Botrytis onion ( Botritis allii ).
• rust,
• Green mold can occur during storage, caused by Penicillium glaucum Link ^[32] .
• black mold rot (during storage),
• white rot.

Pest insects

Onion flies bring about significant harm to garlic - several species of insects of the family of real flies and hover flies . The larvae that feed on the juicy tissue of the bulbs are harmful. Damaged bulbs rot, leaves of the plant turn yellow and dry ^[33] .

• Del ( Delia antiqua [ syn. Hylemyia antiqua ]) 5–7 mm long, light gray with a faint greenish tint on the back. Larvae up to 10 mm long, white. In addition to garlic, it damages the onion-batun, onions, shallot-onions and leeks-onions. Distributed in Eurasia and North America, including in the Arctic regions. Flies emerge from puparia wintering in the soil in mid-May, the larvae develop in July-August, in warmer regions (Ukraine) the onion fly can produce two generations ^[34] .
• Onion hover ( Eumerus strigatus ) 6.5–9 mm long, bronze-green. The larva is up to 11 mm long, from dirty yellow to greenish gray, wrinkled. It damages onions, garlic, tulips, daffodils, irises, sometimes underground parts of potatoes, carrots, beets. It is found in Eurasia, in the countries of the former USSR - everywhere, except for the Far North . The larvae or puparia, hibernate, flies come out in June and lay eggs for one and a half months. In August - September, the second generation appears. The lumpy female talker ( Eumerus tuberculatus ) is similar in distribution and life cycle to the onion hoverfish, these species have slight differences in the morphology of the adults ^[35] .

• Sharpened onion ( Duspessa ulula ) - moth of the family of carpenters. Caterpillars are tucked into bulbs and gnawed inside large cavities. They have been developing for almost a year, starting in July ^{[36] [37]} .

Other garlic pests ^[19] :

• onion thrips ( Thysanoptera ) - small (0.8–0.9 mm long) insects with fringed wings. The body is narrow, oblong, light yellow or dark brown in color. Larvae without wings, whitish or greenish-yellow;
• Onion behind-counterfeit ( Ceutorhynchus jakowlewi ) - beetle 2.2-2.5 mm long, with a thin long corpus tucked under the breast. The body of the beetle is black, covered with whitish scales, which is why it seems gray. Larvae are up to 6.5 mm long, legless, yellowish-white, with a light brown head. Distributed in temperate climates from Western Europe to Kazakhstan. Beetles and larvae damage the leaves, causing them to yellow and dry. More often they attack not on garlic, but on other types of onions ^[38] .
• onion moths ( Acrolepia assectella Zeil. , Acrolepiopsis assectella caucasica Zagulajev ) - dark brown butterflies. Wingspan 8-10 mm. Caterpillars are yellowish-green, with longitudinal yellowish stripes and spots, up to 40 mm long.
• onion stem nematode - a very small filamentous white worm 1–1.5 mm long and 0.04 mm thick, clearly visible only with strong magnification,
• some types of scoop , etc.

Pest Pests

• root mites ( Tyroglyphidae ), representatives of the genera Tirophagus and Rhizoglyphus are small, with oval whitish-vitreous body, octopus mites 0.7-1.1 mm long. Damage to growing plants of onion and garlic in the soil and during storage.
• four-legged garlic mite ( Aceria tulipae ) - extremely small (0.21-0.25 mm), with an elongated body, having only two pairs of walking limbs ^[39] .

Cultural History

Since ancient times, garlic was grown in India , where it was brought arias . The Indians used it for medicinal purposes, while this plant was not used as food because of its strong smell ^[40] .

The cultivation of garlic began about 5 thousand years ago ^[41] . It was very popular in antiquity, it was cultivated by the Romans , Assyrians , Egyptians , Greeks , Jews and Arabs .

The earliest known references indicate that garlic was an important part of the daily diet of many Egyptians, and Egyptian manuscripts from this period also include 800 medicines, 22 of which were made on the basis of garlic ^[42] . He was part of the diet of workers involved in hard work, for example, during the construction of the pyramids. In ancient history, it is generally often mentioned that garlic was given to workers to maintain and increase their strength, thus making work more productive ^[43] . Once in ancient Egypt (about 1600 BC.), A rebellion broke out when workers in the construction of the pyramids did not receive garlic ^[42] . It is not known whether garlic was popular with the upper class or it was a product for the poor, but it is known that in 1922 during excavations of Tutankhamen’s tomb , dated to about 1300 years BC. e., garlic bulbs were found ^[44] . Onions and garlic were found in sarcophagi on closed eyes and in the internal cavities of mummies ^[40] . Perhaps garlic had a ritual significance (or workers left it there) ^[45] .

Garlic is mentioned in the Bible : “The newcomers between them began to discover whims; and with them the children of Israel sat and wept and said: Who will feed us with meat? We remember the fish that we ate in Egypt for free, cucumbers and melons, and onions, and onions, and garlic ; but now our soul languishes; there is nothing, only manna in our eyes ”( Num. 11: 4 - 11: 6 ). That is, in the Bible, dating from the V in. BC e. - II c. n Oe., there is evidence that the Israelis in ancient Egypt ate a lot of onions, garlic and leek, which they lacked during their wanderings with Moses ^[40] . The mention of this plant in the Bible and the Koran testifies to its great importance as a spice and medicinal plant for ancient civilizations ^[6] .

Food Use

Due to its spicy taste, garlic is widely used throughout the world as a seasoning. It is an important element of many dishes in different regions, for example, in East and South Asia , the Middle East and North Africa ; garlic is an indispensable attribute of Mediterranean cuisine .

In Korea and Japan, garlic heads boil over high temperatures; the resulting product, called , has a sugary-sweet taste; It can be bought in the USA, Great Britain and Australia, it began to be produced and sold in Russia.

Arrows of garlic are kvass, salted, pickled, stewed. Delicious fried leaves of a young plant.

As seasoning, use dried ground garlic. It comes in different fractions: flakes, crushed, ground into flour ^[46] .

Aioli - a sauce that represents a mixture of garlic, olive oil and egg yolk, is very popular in the north of the Mediterranean .

- Gascony garlic soup.

In a fresh and canned form garlic is used in cooking ( sausages , pickles, etc.).

Medical use

The medical name for garlic bulbs in Latin is Bulbus Allii Sativi ^[47] .

Garlic is not included in the list of medicinal plants of the State Pharmacopoeia of the Russian Federation, ^[48] therefore herbal medicines are not recognized as official medicine, but at the same time, garlic is a raw material for the production of various preparations, and is actively used in traditional medicine ^[49] .

Garlic juice contains biologically active substances that have antimalarial, fungicidal (antifungal), antiprotozoal, antiviral and antiinflammatory effects ^{[50] [51]} . Garlic also contains phytoncides that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.

In ancient Egyptian literature, a mixture of salt and garlic is referred to as a febrifuge ^[52] .

In medicine, garlic bulbs are used - tincture of garlic and alcohol extract ( allylsat ), which enhance the motor and secretory functions of the gastrointestinal tract , which contributes to the development of normal intestinal flora and increase the body's resistance to colds , infectious diseases and serves as a means of improving the body's immunity ^{[ 50]} . The latter is also due to the fact that the components of garlic increase the activity of phagocytes , T-lymphocytes, macrophages and killer cells. Garlic is prescribed inside also to suppress the processes of decay ^[50] and fermentation in the intestine (with intestinal atony and colitis ). Therefore, as an additive to food, garlic can prevent poisoning by low-quality products ^[53] .

Heals and disinfects wounds. Immunostimulatory and anti - cancer effects of garlic preparations are suggested ^{[54] [55] [56]} .

Garlic contains a large amount of allicin . , which are the product of the breakdown of allicin, react with free radicals . This explains the antioxidant properties of garlic, in which there are no flavonoids , as in green tea or grapes ^[57] .

Garlic to combat infections and parasites

In the XIX century, it was scientifically proven that garlic contains antibiotics . Louis Pasteur discovered that garlic can kill bacteria ^[50] . Fresh garlic has activity against E. coli , Staphylococcus aureus , Salmonella and the fungus Candida ^[53] .

According to some studies, garlic has an antiviral effect ^[58] , in particular, to some extent helps prevent the flu ^[59] . According to other sources ^[60] , an analysis of the methodology of the described studies shows that they cannot be considered as meeting the requirements of evidence-based medicine. Cochrane's collaboration reported that of the six reviewed articles praising garlic, only one met the minimum requirements for research quality. This article demonstrated that people in the control group taking garlic supplement had a cold three times less than the placebo group. If people had a cold, garlic supplement did not affect the duration and severity of the disease ^[61] . In conclusion, Cochrane's collaboration says that, based on the scarce data available, it cannot recommend garlic as a means of preventing colds, but recommends that research continue in this direction.

Effect on the cardiovascular system

Garlic is able to lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and total cholesterol and increase the level of good high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, as well as lower blood pressure , which is useful for the prevention of atherosclerosis and hypertension ^[62] .

Allicin components react with red blood cells (red blood cells). As a result of the reaction, hydrogen sulfide is formed, which reduces the tension of the walls of blood vessels. Inside the blood vessels, the substance promotes more active blood flow. This, in turn, leads to a decrease in blood pressure, allows you to give more oxygen to vital organs and reduce the load on the heart ^[63] .

Contraindications

Consuming large amounts of garlic can increase the risk of postoperative bleeding. When used together with anticoagulant warfarin - increases the duration of bleeding due to an increase in blood clotting time ^[47] .

There is no consensus whether garlic destroys the intestinal microflora .

Onions and garlic are toxic to cats and dogs ^[64] .

For kidney disease ^{[40] [65]} , gallstone disease , anemia , a stomach or intestinal ulcer ^[66], one should be extremely careful in eating garlic. Preparations of garlic are contraindicated in diseases of the kidneys.

Composition

Bulbs contain 35–42% of dry substances, including 6.0–7.9% of proteins , 7.0–28 mg% of vitamin C (up to 80 mg% in leaves), 0.5% of sugars, 20— 27% polysaccharides .

The taste and smell of garlic are due to the presence of an essential oil (0.23–0.74%), which contains allicin and other organic compounds of the sulfide group ( phytoncides ).

Allicin is an essential oil of garlic, an organic substance that is the strongest antioxidant , that is, it removes cells from free radicals ^[67] . During the experiment with artificial allicin, scientists found out that the product of decay of the latter reacts with free radicals (the so-called sulfenic acids).

Their reaction occurs very quickly and is limited only by the meeting time of two molecules (radical and acid). Previously, no one in artificial or in natural conditions did not observe anything of the kind, scientists say. - ^[68] . Allicin is a complex mixture of volatile nitrogen-free aromatic compounds consisting mainly of polysulfides with a burning smell ^[40] . In addition to the sterilizing (antimicrobial) action, allicin has an irritating, sokogonnym and expectorant effect ^[40] .

Other components

1. Pyruvic acid ^[69]
4. Caffeic acid
5. Chlorogenic acid
6. Diallyl disulfide
7. Ferulic acid (3-hydroxy-4-methoxy-phenylpropenoic acid)
8. Geraniol
10. Linalool
13. Floroglucin
14. Phytic acid
15. Quercetin
16. Rutin
18. Saponins

Kronkvist's classification (1988) ranked this genus as lily ( Liliaceae ), later on the results of phylogenetic studies the genus Onion (plant) ( Allium ) was divided into a separate family Onion ( Alliaceae ) ( APG II System ), but in the later APG III Classification System (2009) genera belonging to this family were included in the Amaryllidaceae family ^[70] .

Taxonomic scheme

The beliefs of the Slavs

In the mythology of the Slavic peoples, snakes are looking for healing herbs and are healed with the help of them, even the snake, cut in half, touching this grass, grows together again. Memories of snake grass are mostly combined with garlic and onions. Therefore, magical properties are attributed to garlic. According to the Czechs, garlic on the roof of the house protects the building from lightning. There is a belief in Serbia that if before the Annunciation you kill a snake, grow a garlic bulb on her head, then tie this garlic to the cap, and put the cap on the head, then all the witches will run together and begin to take away the garlic, because there is great power in it. Those who wanted to gain the upper hand on the judicial duel were advised by sorcerers and healers to kill the snake, put its tongue in the left boot, and when needed, put three cloves of garlic in this boot and go to the court session or on the battlefield. Garlic was attributed to the property of chasing witches, unclean spirits and disease. For this purpose, the Serbs rubbed themselves with garlic juice, and the Czechs hung it over the doors. In some villages in southern Russia, when the bride went to church, she was tied with garlic to prevent spoilage ^[72] . In the mythology of the Slavs and fiction, garlic is a talisman against vampires ^{[73] [74]} . These properties were attributed to garlic due to its strong odor ^[75] .

Rusyns used garlic to locate the witch . For this, a special magical rite was performed: on Christmas Eve, after dinner, garlic was placed in the corners of the table, which was grown until Easter. Then it was necessary to take the grown feathers of garlic and keep them in the mouth for the entire service in the church until they put the Easter cakes. At this point, it becomes clear that some women have a milk cup on their heads - these are witches ^[76] .

Garlic is a divine plant among the Bulgarians ^[77] , and among the peoples of the north it is the plant of Satan ^[77] .

According to Ukrainian legend, garlic grew out of the witch’s teeth, so eating it is considered a sin ^[78] .

Hindu beliefs

The ancient Indians mention garlic - Jangida - in one of the oldest books, Atharvaveda , as a remedy against diseases and demons, rakshasas , evil spirits; this means given by the gods is called arable land derived from the juices. This is an amulet, spoiling witchcraft ^[79] .

In another translation, in other words, N. K. Roerich says the same thing in the autographography “1929 Spring”. It also provides a translation of the word jangida ^[80] .

Garlic in the Modern World

In 2009, in connection with the swine flu pandemic, a rumor spread in China that garlic helps the human body prevent infection. During the year, garlic prices in China increased almost 40 times ^{[81] [82]} .

Since 1998, there has been an annual charity festival of garlic in the USA, all funds from which are transferred to help local children suffering from mental disorders ^[83] .

Garlic is the basis of Spanish cuisine , and among the most famous lovers of this product is King Juan Carlos I and Pope Benedict XVI . The Spanish city of Las Pedronieras is recognized as the world capital of garlic ^{[84] [85]} .

In Russian

• Abrahina Yu. V., Ershov I. I. Chesnok. - M .: Rosselkhozizdat, 1981. - 31 p.
• Bilai, V.I., et al. Microorganisms — plant disease pathogens, Ed. V.I. Bilay. - K .: Naukova Dumka, 1988. - ISBN 5-12-000298-6 .
• Bolotskikh A. S. Onions, garlic. - Kharkov: Folio Plus, 2002. - 286 p. - ISBN 966-03-1366-7 .
• Brovdiy V.M. et al. Pests of agricultural crops and forest plantations: in 3 tons / Ed. V.P. Vasilyev. - K .: Harvest, 1974. - T. 2.
• Vvedensky A. I. Genus 267. Onions - Allium L. // Flora of the USSR : in 30 t. / Ch. ed. V.L. Komarov . - L .: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR , 1935. - T. 4 / ed. Toma V.L. Komarov. - pp. 112-280. - 760, XXX with. - 5175 copies
• Gurkin V.A., Dokuchaeva G.N. Chesnok. - M .: MKM, 2000. - 94 p. - ISBN 5-87317-072-X .
• Ignatiev M. A. Chesnok. - Cheboksary: ​​Chuvash. Prince publishing house, 1984.
• Kazakova A. A. Cultural flora of the USSR. - L .: Kolos, 1978. - T. X. Luk.
• Kalinichenko V.G., Kalinichenko L.N. Onion. Garlic. - Voronezh: Voronezh publishing house. University, 1991. - 20 p. - ISBN 5-7455-0593-1 .
• Kotov V.P. Garlic. - SPb. —M .: Eksmo, 2003. - 61 p. - ISBN 5-699-02303-8 .
• Likhatsky V.I. Chesnok: Biology and technology of cultivation. - Kiev: USHA, 1990. - 96 p. - ISBN 5-7987-0061-5 .
• Pavlov, S. A. Garlic. - [SPb.]: Lenizdat, 2005
• Field M. A. Garlic - for the health of blood vessels and the heart. - SPb. : All, 2005. - 127 p. - ISBN 5-9573-0540-5 .
• Romashov MA Treatment of garlic. - M .: Veche, 2004. - 94 p. - ISBN 5-9533-0115-4 .
• Khokhryakov M. K. and others. The determinant of plant diseases. - 3rd ed., Corr. - SPb. : Lan, 2003. pp. 378–384. - ISBN 5-8114-0479-4 .

In other languages

• Tsai Y. et al. Antiviral Properties of Garlic: In Vitro Effects on Influenza B, Herpes Simplex and Coxsackie Viruses. // Planta Med., 1985 Oct .; 51 (5): 460-461.

• Plant morphology / Abrakhina Yu. V. // The Great Soviet Encyclopedia : [in 30 t.] / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov . - 3rd ed. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978. (Verified January 5, 2013)
• Garlic is a natural healer. (rus.) (inaccessible link) . pro Garlic.com . - portal about garlic. The appeal date is November 15, 2009. Archived January 18, 2010.
• Kazakova T. Urgent need. All about garlic. (rus.) (inaccessible link) . The magazine "Gardener" № 4, 2007 . The appeal date is November 15, 2009. Archived November 4, 2009.
• The effect of garlic on the intestines and digestion. (rus.) (inaccessible link) . All about food . - useful properties of garlic. Circulation date April 2, 2010. Archived May 2, 2010.
• Maria Chizhova. Garlic Agrotechnics (Unsolved) (inaccessible link) . The appeal date is December 23, 2017. Archived November 1, 2016.