A game

The first games appeared in animals long before the appearance of man. Monkeys use not only those games that are associated with certain rituals, for example, the mating season, but also similar to similar games of people. Humanity has been playing since prehistoric times - starting with ritual games (for example, the rite of initiation ), with the development of civilization, the games became more and more difficult and became almost any subject - war, love, fantasy, history. Probably the most developed in this regard are MMORPGs with a multiplayer mode like World of Warcraft , to which thousands of users around the world are connected every minute and in which millions of different actions are performed every second. There are games that can lead to death - survival games , airsoft . Historical facts show a vivid example of a survival game - gladiatorial battles and Russian roulette .

Playing kitten

Higher animals have a distinct juvenile period during which they exhibit game behavior. The nature of games in animals is determined by species characteristics and depends to a large extent on a lifestyle, since elements of the behavioral repertoire of adult animals are manifested (and improved) in games — individual forms of food-producing, mating, social and gnarly-building behavior. For example, in the game, the game includes harboring and jumping - these movements are used when hunting small rodents.

Often there are games using objects (manipulation games). Such games are observed in many mammals , but are especially developed and complex in monkeys . Games allow monkeys to hone subtle movements under the control of skin sensitivity and vision. Sometimes monkeys spend a long time in one place, manipulating one object, while their activity is usually aimed at destroying the object itself.

Joint participation in the game of several individuals brings it to a whole new level. Communication of animals in the process of playing together plays an important role in the formation of group behavior. Usually joint games include fighting and racing, but may include manipulating various objects, including fighting for an object. For example, the games of the cubs consist in running a race, harnessing, attacking each other from an ambush and fighting.

The game is the main activity of the child. S. L. Rubinstein (1976) noted that the game stores and develops children’s childhood, that it is their school of life and development practice. According to D. B. Elkonin (1978), “in the game not only separate intellectual operations develop or are re-formed, but the child’s position in relation to the world is radically changed and a mechanism is formed for a possible change of position and coordination of one’s point of view with other possible points of view. "

Thomas Schelling , Laureate of the Economics Prize in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2005, in his work “Conflict Strategy” considers various “strategies” of behavior of the parties to the conflict. These strategies coincide with the tactics of conflict management and the principles of conflict analysis in conflict management (this is a psychological discipline) and in conflict management in an organization (management theory). In psychology and other sciences they use the word “game” in other senses than in mathematics. Some psychologists and mathematicians are skeptical of the use of this term in other senses that have developed earlier. The culturological concept of the game was given in the work of Johan Huizing “ Homo Ludens ” (articles on the history of culture), the author talks about the use of games in justice, culture, ethics, that the game is older than the person himself, since animals also play. The concept of the game is found in Eric Byrne 's concept of "Games that people play, people who play games." These are purely psychological games based on transactional analysis . The concept of the game by J. Hözing differs from the interpretation of the game in conflict theory and mathematical game theory. Games are also used for training in business cases, seminars by G.P.Shchedrovitsky , the founder of the organizational-activity approach. During Perestroika in the USSR , G.P.Shchedrovitsky held many games with Soviet managers. Due to the psychological tension, the ODI (organizational-activity games) were so strong that they served as a powerful catalyst for changes in the USSR. Now in Russia there is a whole movement of ODI. Critics note the artificial uniqueness of ODI. The basis of the ODI was the Moscow Methodological Circle (MMK) .

The business game is a form of modern university and postgraduate education. There are innovative, positional games (A.A. Tyukov); organizational and educational games (S. D. Neverkovich S. D. Neverkovich on the site "Dictionaries and Encyclopedias on the Academician" ); educational games ( BCLazarev V.S. Lazarev on the site "National Encyclopedic Service" ); organizational and mental games ( OS Anisimov ); organizational and activity games ( GP Shchedrovitsky ) and others. ^[5]

In the framework of game theory , a mathematical theory that allows you to simulate various situations, a game is equated to a conflict situation in which at least two players, according to certain rules, seek to get the maximum gain ^[6] .

Games, including computer games, can serve as a psycho-diagnostic tool; conclusions can be made from preferred game situations, in relation to the pace and complexity of the game ^[7] . The very presence of toys when communicating with a child can contribute to the therapeutic (including diagnostic) process through the creation of a suitable atmosphere ^[8] .

There may be developmental delays with borderline states, up to personality disorders , leading to the replacement of real activities - gaming: people have a dependency on gambling or computer games, which can lead to the desocialization of the player.

In preschool children, the game is the main activity. Some elemental games of preschoolers have a pronounced resemblance to the games of representatives of the animal world, but even such simple games as catch-up , wrestling and hide and seek are to a large extent cultured. In games, children imitate the work of adults, take on various social roles . Already at this stage, there is a differentiation by gender. A special position is occupied by specially developed educational and therapeutic games.

In games, individual and age characteristics of children are manifested. At the age of 2-3 years, they begin to master the logical-figurative representation of reality. When playing, children begin to give objects contextually-determined imaginary properties, to replace real objects with them (games “make-believe”).

In the development of the game, two main stages are distinguished. The first of them (3-5 years) is characterized by the reproduction of the logic of real actions of people; substantive actions are the content of the game. At the second stage (5-7 years), instead of reproducing the general logic, there is a simulation of real relationships between people, that is, the content of the game at this stage is social relations ^[9] .

Pedagogical significance

The game from almost ancient times acts as a form of training , as a primary school for the reproduction of real practical situations with the aim of mastering them. Historically, one of the goals of the game was to develop the necessary human traits, qualities, skills and habits, and the development of abilities.

“I say and affirm that a person who wants to become outstanding in any matter should exercise from an early age ... For example, who wants to become a good farmer or housekeeper, must still cultivate the land or build any children’s games facilities ”.

- Plato (427 - 347 BC)

“What a child is in the game, that’s how much he will be at work when he grows up. Therefore, the upbringing of the future leader takes place primarily in the game. And the whole story of an individual person as a leader and worker can be represented in the development of the game and in its gradual transition to work. .. " ^[10]

- A.S. Makarenko (1888 - 1939)

Game as a Training Method

The natural and irresistible desire of children to play with great success is used in teaching practice. There are scientifically based game techniques and technologies designed for children of different ages. The main difference between the game as a learning method is the presence of a clear goal. The specific content and forms of the gameplay are very diverse and are determined by a number of factors.

Educational games

Developing games are games for the development of attention , memory , thinking , etc. Games should be original, interesting and carry a task, a question, a problem that a child needs to solve, only in this case they fulfill their goal. One of the varieties of educational games is board games , which in an interesting colorful form teach a child independence, quick wit, and imaginative thinking.

For example, a child’s domino with the image of geometric figures on chips will not only teach the child how to interact in a team, but also remember the main figures (circle, square, triangle, rectangle).

In preschool age, didactic play is considered the main means of sensory education ^[11] . It is almost entirely the task of forming the child’s sensory: familiarity with form, size, color, space, sound. In contrast to the educational essence of classes in a didactic game, two principles act simultaneously: educational - cognitive, and game - entertaining.

Therapeutic Games

The term “therapeutic game” can be understood as a concept introduced by Eric Bern , referring to a series of additional hidden interactions in the doctor’s office, moving to a certain predictable outcome ^{[12] [13]} , or game psychotherapy .

Game psychotherapy is a method of psychotherapeutic influence on children and adults using the game ^[14] .

One should also distinguish between “game therapy” (a more general term) and game psychotherapy. In the first case, the psychotherapeutic aspect is not assumed. It can also be teaching certain skills, for example: using physical therapy classes , training children with diabetes , helping themselves, and so on ^[15] .

Thus, we can say that the western term “game therapy” ( play therapy ) and the term “game psychotherapy” often used in our country are not accurate enough.

In addition, there are several main areas of game psychotherapy, but very often the identification of exclusively non-directive game psychotherapy with game psychotherapy in general occurs. Moreover, only children are seen as patients ^[15] .

Game Concepts in Pedagogy and Psychology

Gross's theory (“theory of instinctiveness”), based on the developing role of the game, gained great popularity. According to this theory, the game is a preparation for further activities. By playing, the child masters new roles, develops skills and expands his life experience. In adults, the game does not disappear, but turns into a recreational activity that has value as an addition to life.

Karl Buhler’s theory of functional pleasure considers pleasure derived directly from the gameplay as the main motivation.

According to the concept of the game, developed by Spencer Herbert (“theory of compensatory”) under the influence of the ideas of Friedrich Schiller , the game is a means of getting rid of unrealized energy ^[16] .

According to the Freudian , in particular, Adler’s theory, the game shows the inferiority of the subject fleeing from life, unable to cope with it, with life. From the manifestation of creative activity, the game turns into a dump for what is supplanted from life; from a product and a development factor, it becomes an expression of insufficiency and inferiority, from preparation for life, it turns into an escape from it.

According to Hall's theory (the “theory of recapitulation”), the game is a mechanism by which a child moves from the reproduction of one of the stages of human development to another ^[17] .

In Russian-language literature, D. N. Uznadze and L. S. Vygotsky made attempts to give their theory of the game.

Leo Vygotsky emphasizes that the child, playing, creates an imaginary situation for himself instead of the real one and acts in it, freeing himself from situational attachment and fulfilling a certain role, in accordance with the figurative meanings that he attaches to surrounding objects. At the same time, he does not consider pleasure to be the root cause of games, he does not consider the game to be the predominant type of child’s activity, but considers it an element of development (“the relation of the game to development should be compared with the ratio of learning to development” - according to the theory of the zone of proximal development) ^[18] .

According to the theory of Dmitry Uznadze, who was especially interested in the motivation of the game, the game satisfies the functional need to use developing functions that are not yet connected to real activities; the same determines the content of the game ^[19]

• Tabletop
• Gambling
• Movable
• Sports
• Role
• Baby
• Computer
• Psychological
• Transformational

The main components of the game are the imaginary situation, the role and the game actions that implement it, as well as the roles taken by the players; game actions as a means of realizing these roles; game use of objects, that is, the replacement of real objects with game, conditional; real relationships between the players ^[20] .

According to S. A. Shmakov, the following are distinguished: lack of material results (pleasure instead of utilitarianism), content (what the game displays) and the plot of the game, imaginary situation (design and invention of the game), rules of the game (the ratio of all its components), game actions , the external task of the game, the means of the game, risk and gain ^[21] .

Игры могут принимать различные формы, начиная от спортивных соревнований и заканчивая настольными и компьютерными играми.

Основная систематизация игр проходит обычно по их содержательному признаку (познавательные, музыкальные, деловые, спортивные, военные и т. д.) ^[21] .

Азартная игра — игра, в которой выигрыш полностью или в значительной степени зависит не от навыка играющих, а от случая .

Термин в настоящее время имеет следующее экономическое определение: заключение пари на деньги или какую-либо материальную ценность на событие с сомнительным исходом с главным намерением получения прибыли или материальных ценностей. Азартная игра зависит в большей степени от случайности, чем от искусства играющих, причём размер ставок назначается произвольно и может быть изменяем играющими, а главный интерес направлен не на процесс игры, а на её исход ^[22] .

Иногда вызывают игровую зависимость — патологическую склонность к азартным играм ; заключается в частых повторных эпизодах участия в азартных играх, которые доминируют в жизни человека и ведут к снижению социальных, профессиональных, материальных и семейных ценностей: такой человек не уделяет должного внимания своим обязанностям в этих сферах. В системе кодирования болезней МКБ-10 имеет код F63.0.

• Apinyan T. A. Game in the space of seriousness: Game, myth, ritual, dream, art, etc. St. Petersburg: Publishing House of the St. Petersburg State. University, 2003. ISBN 5-288-03191-6
• Anton Makarenko . Game // (chapter from the book "On the Education of Youth" with an interesting classification of types of toys, their comparative advantages and disadvantages.).
• Rudakov V.E. , Schukarev A.N. Games // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron : in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.

Psychology

• Daniil Elkonin . Game Psychology ( 1978 )
• Brunner J. Readings on the game. M., 1976
• A game from all sides (A book about how children and other people play). Modern research, an interdisciplinary approach, practical recommendations, a look into the future. M .: Foundation for Scientific Research "Pragmatics of Culture", 2003. 432 pp. ISBN 5-98392-001-4

Zoopsychology

• Fabry K. E. Game in animals. - Moscow, 1985.
• Fabri K. E. Animal games and children's games (comparative psychological aspects) // Psychology Issues . - 1982. - No. 3 . - S. 26-34 .

Philosophy

• Johan Heyzinga . Homo Ludens (The Man Playing) ( 1939 )
• Hugo Raner . The Playing Man ( 1949 )
• Roger Kayua . Games and people ( 1958 )
• Eugen Fink . The game as a symbol of peace ( 1960 )
• Eric Byrne . Games People Play. People who play games ( 1964 )
• Costas Axelos . The World as a Game (Axelos K. Le jeu du monde . Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1969 )
• Brian Sutton Smith . Study of the game ( 1971 )
• Donald Winnicott . Game and Reality (1971)
• Berland I.E. Game as a phenomenon of consciousness. Kemerovo, 1992.
• Retyunskih L.T. The philosophy of the game. M., 2002 .-- 256 s.