Michael John (Shaun) Collins - Irish revolutionary, political and military leader.
| Michael John (Mick) Collins | |
|---|---|
| Irl. Mícheál Seán Ó Coileáin English Michael John (Mick) Collins | |
| Nickname | The big fella |
| Date of Birth | October 16, 1890 |
| Place of Birth | Clonakilti , County Cork , Ireland |
| Date of death | August 22, 1922 (31 years old) |
| Place of death | Bandon , County Cork , Ireland |
| Affiliation | Republic of Ireland Irish Republican Brotherhood , Irish volunteers Irish Republican Army , National Army (Irish Free State Army) |
| Rank | Commander-in-Chief |
| Battles / wars | Easter rebellion Ireland War of Independence , Civil War in Ireland |
| Autograph | |
At the age of 19, he was admitted to the Irish Republican Brotherhood , which included in the Easter Uprising in 1916 . In 1917 he joined the nationalist party of Shin Fein . In December 1918 he was elected to the British House of Commons , but like all the deputies, Shin Fein, who had 73 of the 105 Irish seats, left the lower house, creating his own parliament in Dublin . During the Revolutionary War, Ireland played a key role in the development of a guerrilla war against British rule. In January 1919 he participated in the declaration of independence of Ireland and was appointed Minister of the Interior in the government of Imon de Valera , in April of the same year he transferred to the post of Minister of Finance. At the end of 1921 he became a member of the Irish delegation, which was negotiating with Britain about peace. The result was the Anglo-Irish Treaty , which led to the division of the country into the Irish Free State , which received the dominion of Britain and Northern Ireland , which remained in the United Kingdom and the civil war between supporters and opponents of such conditions. In January 1922 he was appointed head of the provisional government of Southern Ireland and commander of the Irish National Army, while remaining in the government of the Republic of Ireland . He took an active part in suppressing the resistance of opponents of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, headed by Imon de Valera, and was killed in one of the clashes with them at the age of 31.
Content
Biography
The early years
Michael Collins was born in the town of Sams Cross near the larger city of Clonakilti in the west of County Cork , Ireland . He was the third son in the family and the youngest of eight children. Although in most of his biographies the date of birth appears on October 16, 1890, he was knocked out on the tomb of Collins on October 12, 1890. His father, who was also named Michael, was a member of the Fenian movement in his youth, but subsequently moved away from him and went into farming. Elder Collins was 59 years old [1] when he married 23-year-old Marian O'Brien. Michael's father died when his son was only six years old. The eldest Collins last request was for all family members to take care of the youngest child, Michael. The head of the family also suggested the future of his third son: “One day he will become a great man and will do a lot for Ireland” ( English One day he'll be a great man. He'll do great work for Ireland. ) [2] .
Collins grew up over the years as a developed and promising child, endowed with a fiery temper and a heightened sense of nationalism, which was developed by James Santry, a local blacksmith , and subsequently strengthened by Denis Lyons, the school principal and member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (an organization whose head will subsequently be Collins himself).
At the end of school, 15-year-old Michael followed in the footsteps of most Irish and went to London. There he lived with his elder sister Joan and studied at Royal College London [3] . In February 1906, Collins passed the exams [4] and was enrolled as an employee on the royal post in July of that year. He also joined the London branch of the Gaelic Athletic Association to subsequently join the Irish Republican Brotherhood, a secret society with the goal of gaining independence. Sam Maguire, a Republican from the town of Dunmanui in Cork, introduced the 19-year-old Collins to members of the IRB [5] . Over time, the latter will play a central role in the life of this movement.
Participation in the Easter Uprising
Michael Collins gained fame during the Easter Uprising of 1916. A skilled organizer of a well-established intelligence service, he was so respected among the members of the IRB that he was appointed financial adviser to County Plunket, father of one of the leaders of the uprising Joseph-Mary Planket, whose adjutant subsequently became Collins.
During the uprising on the first Monday after Easter , Collins held the defense shoulder to shoulder with Patrick Pierce and others at the Central Post Office in Dublin. As many expected, the rebellion failed, and its leaders (Patrick Pierce, James Connolly , Joseph Mary Plunkett and others) were executed. However, most people were encouraged that the rebellion did happen. They believed in the concept of Pierce’s “bloody sacrifice,” and specifically in the fact that the death of the leaders of the uprising would lead to the uplift of the people. Collins, in turn, opposed the sedentary target tactics used, when the rebels captured weakly defended and vulnerable points that were difficult to leave and even harder to stock. He chose the tactics of guerrilla warfare (“flying units”), which consisted of sudden attacks on British soldiers and an equally rapid withdrawal from the battlefield, thereby reducing losses among the rebels and increasing the effectiveness of their struggle.
Like most participants in the uprising, Collins was arrested, nearly sentenced to the gallows, and sent to an internment camp in Frongoc. There, his leadership qualities appeared. By the time he was released, Michael had become one of the leaders of the Sinn Fein movement, a small nationalist party that the British government and the Irish press unfairly accused of organizing an uprising. Proponents of the movement took advantage of these attacks to popularize it. By October 1917, thanks to his outstanding abilities, Collins joined the party’s executive body and became the head of the Irish Volunteers organization; Eamon de Valera was elected chairman of both organizations.
UK Elections
Collins was nominated for the British House of Commons by Shin Fein in Michael's native county, South Cork. Since there were no other applicants for this place, Collins went to the lower house of parliament without a vote [6] . Shin Fein as a whole confidently won in Ireland, having won 73 of 105 possible places [7] . However, the majority of deputies from the province of Ulster represented the Irish Unionist Alliance [8] . However, after some time, the members of Shin Fein, led by Imon de Valera, announced their refusal to work in the general British parliament and then organized their own legislative body in Dublin . The new parliament, Doyle Ehren ( irl. Dáil Éireann ), met in January 1919 and at the first meeting, on the 21st, adopted the Declaration of Independence of Ireland by the [9] . Then de Valera and the rest of the ministers were arrested. Collins was warned about this by his people and, in turn, warned the ministers. However, de Valera chose to ignore this information, being convinced that the arrest of the legally elected representatives of the people would cause widespread indignation. During his imprisonment, Kahal Bruh was elected head of the assembly and government of the Republic of Ireland . After escaping from a prison hosted by Collins in April 1919, de Valera became the new chairman of parliament.
In the summer of 1919 Collins was elected president of the IRB (thus, in accordance with the doctrine of this organization, he de jure became president of the Republic of Ireland). In September 1919, he was appointed head of intelligence for the Irish Republican Army , as the Irish Volunteers became known from January 1919. In this role, Collins made great strides - he not only managed to eliminate enemy informants and police officers, but also acquired his own sources in the Dublin police, such as Ned Bro and David Neligan.
The day after the opening of the first meeting of the Irish Assembly, the war for the country's independence began - then several IRA fighters, acting without an order, shot and killed two police officers accompanying a batch of explosives in the county of Tipperary .
First government. Minister of the Interior
The second government. Minister of Finance
In 1919, de Valera appointed the already overworked Collins as Minister of Finance. Obviously, in the conditions of a brutal war, when any leader of an unrecognized Irish state could be captured or even killed by the Royal Police, British troops or punitive detachments at the first order, the ministers existed only on paper. In fact, all of their work was carried out not in the office, but in the room of someone's house, where they sat in two or alone. However, Michael Collins managed to create an entire Ministry of Finance and began to issue government loan bonds to finance the young republic.
It is noteworthy that Soviet Russia , torn by civil war , went through its official representative in New York, Ludwig Karlovich Martens, to Harry Boland, a close friend and colleague of Collins and at the same time special envoy of Imon de Valera to the United States. Knowing about Collins' successful work in attracting finance for the young Republic of Ireland (besides being the only country in the world to recognize the latter), the Soviet side offered the imperial house jewelry (diamonds from the Great Imperial Crown ) in exchange for cash (a loan of $ 25,000 from the Irish Republic).
Harry Boland, killed by government forces (ironically led by Collins, with whom they found themselves on opposite sides of the barricades) during the civil war in Ireland , managed to transfer the jewels to his mother in order to return them only after the Irish Republicans returned to power . Their whereabouts remained unknown until 1938, when Boland's mother handed them over to the new government of Imon de Valera. However, the jewels were again forgotten, and they lay there for another 10 years in a Dublin safe. All forgotten, they were in Ireland for a total of 28 years, until they accidentally stumbled upon them in 1948. The new Prime Minister, John Costello, was about to sell them at a London auction, but as a result of negotiations with the Soviet side, the Irish agreed to return them to their homeland in exchange for the same $ 25,000 for which they were transferred. Diamonds returned to the USSR in 1950.
Collins' contribution to the development of an independent Irish state is impressive. From the creation of a special punitive detachment, the Twelve Apostles, whose activities were aimed at eliminating British agents and their informants, to organizing a state loan and an arms smuggling operation. From the leadership of the IRA to the administration of parliament during de Valer's trip to the United States .
Along with Richard Mulkahi , Harry Boland and his principal opponent Kahal Bru, Michael Collins was one of the organizers of the IRA, successfully coordinating the actions of disparate partisan detachments. He is also credited with the merit of creating the "flying squads" of the IRA, who took part in the Irish Revolutionary War, however, despite Collins' significant contribution to the formation of the squads, their main organizer was Dick McKee, who was later executed by the British in revenge for Bloody Sunday 1920 (then , in response to the killing of 14 British intelligence agents by IRA fighters, soldiers opened fire on spectators gathered at the Dublin stadium where the Irish football match was taking place). We should also mention the high activity of the leaders of local militias, who subsequently formed the IRA itself.
In 1920, the British offered a reward of 10 thousand pounds (a huge amount at that time) for information that could lead to the capture or death of Michael Collins. By this time, his fame had already spread beyond the IRA, and among the people he received the nickname Big Fellow (Versil) , apparently, as a hint of his well-known and conspicuous. Irish author Frank O'Connor, who participated in the civil war, gives a different version of the emergence of this nickname. According to him, it had a somewhat ironic connotation and stemmed from Collins claims to its high significance among other members of the movement.
Together with the growing popularity, Collins made two enemies: Minister of Defense Kahal Bru, who was the first to overshadow his activities in the military field, being officially the Minister of Finance, and Imon da Valera, President of the Assembly.
Following the armistice, preparations began for a conference between the British government and the leaders of the still-unrecognized Republic of Ireland. Despite all the efforts of de Valera and prominent American Irish in Washington, as well as the activities of Sean T. O'Kelly at the Versailles Peace Conference , not a single country, except Soviet Russia, recognized the young republic.
Moreover, everyone was amazed at the actions of de Valera, when in August 1921 he appointed himself president of the Republic of Ireland in order to be on a par with King George V at the upcoming event, and then, in view of the king’s reluctance to participate in the negotiations, he declared that he, too, was not the head of state will take part in them.
Instead, he sent delegates to London under the leadership of Arthur Griffith , whose deputy made Collins. With heavy forebodings, believing that it was de Valera who was to lead the delegation, Collins went to England .
Anglo-Irish Treaty
Most of the Irish delegates, including Arthur Griffith, Robert Burton, and Imon Dugan, arrived in London in October in London, where they stayed until the conclusion of negotiations. Collins and his people settled separately from the rest. He protested against his appointment as plenipotentiary, since he was not a politician, and public appearances on people could adversely affect his activity as a partisan leader. Collins knew that the treaty (especially the part that referred to the partition of the country) would be negatively accepted at home. After signing it, he will say: "I signed my own death sentence."
Negotiations ended on December 6, 1921 with the conclusion of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which proclaimed the creation of the Irish Free State (although de Valera himself translated the Irish version of this phrase as “the Republic of Ireland”). On December 22 of the same year, the new state was officially formed.
The agreement granted the right to 6 northern counties to secede from the newly formed state - which they immediately took advantage of. The Irish Border Commission was to establish borders between the young republic and Northern Ireland . Collins expected that as a result of her activities, the territory of Northern Ireland would decrease so much that the country would prove economically unsustainable. However, these aspirations were not destined to come true.
Ireland was proclaimed dominion with a bicameral parliament . The king was formally vested with executive power, but in fact it was led by the Irish government, elected by the lower House of Representatives. An independent judiciary was also established in the country.
Supporters of the republic regarded this state of affairs as a betrayal. Not only that, instead of a republic, their homeland became imperial possession, so they also had to take an oath of allegiance to the king! However, an analysis of the text of the oath shows that it was brought to the Irish Free State, and allegiance to the king in it was declared only as devotion to one of the parties to the signed agreement.
Shin Fein members disagreed on the agreement. Over the course of 10 days, fierce disputes were going on in the Assembly, and in the end, with 64 votes to 57, it was approved. Cahal Brue noted that Collins was not Ireland’s chief military officer, but the newspapers describe him as "the man who won the war." Nevertheless, it was Collins who made the most significant contribution to the activities of the IRA during the war of independence. De Valera led a group of opponents to the adoption of the treaty. Opponents accused him of initially recognizing the fact that the British would dictate their terms of peace. The most ardent opponents of the President of the Assembly accused him of cowardice for refusing to head the delegation, for he knew very well that he would not be able to achieve full independence in such a short time.
Chairman of the interim government
On January 21, 1922, the Assembly adopted a brief version of the provisional constitution of the Republic of Ireland. In response, de Valera resigned as chairman and demanded elections for the head of parliament (as a result of which he hoped for the cancellation of the recently adopted agreement). However, he was circumvented by Arthur Griffith, who became the new chairman of the Assembly. However, in accordance with British law, the new government did not have legal force. As a result, an alternative cabinet was formed, nominally accountable to the Southern Ireland House of Commons.
This Provisional Government was organized under the leadership of Collins, who became its chairman. He also remained Minister of Finance in the Republican Administration of Griffith. Thus, he found himself in a rather difficult position:
- In accordance with British legal theory, Collins became prime minister with the appointment of a king (according to the Royal Prerogatives ). To take up this position, he needed to meet with the viceroy (otherwise, "Lord Viceroy") of Ireland - Viscount Fitzalan.
- In accordance with the republican vision of affairs, Collins was supposed to accept at Fitzalan the surrender of the Dublin Castle - the official residence of the British government in Ireland.
- To top it all - on the basis of the constitutional law of the kingdom - he had to go through the so-called “kissing hands” procedure for his official approval as prime minister.
According to a common version, Collins was late for the official ceremony for 7 minutes and received a reprimand from Fitzalan for this. The response of the IRA leader was brief: “You only waited 7 minutes, while we had to wait 700 years!”
The Anglo-Irish Agreement was the subject of heated debate in the Assembly. Firstly, de Valera was unhappy that Collins signed the agreement without ministerial approval. Secondly, de Valera, along with many other members of parliament, objected to the status of Ireland as the dominion of the British crown - and, as a result, the official oath to the king. Disputes also erupted around the status of 3 ports on the southern coast of Ireland - the Royal Navy left them behind. This allowed Britain to control the foreign policy of the young republic.
It is curious that, looking back, it becomes clear that the division of a single country into two states was not so contradictory in nature. The fact is that Collins secretly planned the start of a guerrilla war in Northern Ireland. В течение первых месяцев 1922 года он отсылал части ИРА к границе, а также снабжал северные отряды республиканской армии деньгами и оружием. В мае-июне 1922 он вместе с начальником штаба ИРА Лиамом Линчем организовал наступление частей ИРА по всей протяженности новой границы (причём в нём участвовали как части, одобрившие договор, так и те, кто были против). Оружие, которое Англия направила временному правительству, было передано северным формированиям ИРА. 3 июня это наступление было официально приостановлено под давлением британцев. Тогда же Коллинз выпустил заявление, которым постановлялось, что «никакие войска, находящиеся ли под контролем официальных властей страны (то есть те, что поддержали договор), или же входящие в состав ИРА (то есть противники соглашения) не могут пересекать границу Северной Ирландии». Однако периодические инциденты на границе всё же происходили. Лишь начало гражданской войны прервало эти выступления. Вероятно, что останься Коллинз жив, он бы развязал полномасштабную партизанскую войну против северного соседа. Этим объясняется то, что большинство отрядов ИРА, базировавшихся в Северной Ирландии, поддерживали Коллинза и с началом гражданской войны многие из бойцов (524 человека) присоединились к южным частям республиканской армии.
В течение нескольких месяцев, предшествовавших началу гражданской войны, Коллинз отчаянно пытался предотвратить раскол страны и не допустить вооружённого столкновения. Когда де Валера со сторонниками покинул заседание Ассамблеи, Коллинз предложил компромиссное решение, заключавшееся в образовании коалиционного правительства Ирландской республики — из сторонников и противников договора. Также он предложил республиканскую конституцию для страны — без оглядки на короля, но в то же время призвал парламентариев не отрекаться от уже заключённого соглашения. Это компромисс удовлетворял всех, кроме совсем уж завзятых и непреклонных республиканцев. Кроме того, Коллинз организовал Комитет по воссоединению армии, членами которого стали и сторонники, и противники англо-ирландского соглашения. Посредством ИРБ он попытался склонить офицеров ИРА на свою сторону и заручиться их поддержкой. Несмотря на все усилия, Англия отвергла проект ирландской конституции под угрозой экономической блокады страны. Английское правительство заявило, что договор был подписан в духе доброй воли и его пункты не могут быть изменены. Коллинзу так и не удалось найти общий язык с противниками договора, которые в конце концов объявили, что не намерены более подчиняться решениям Ирландской Ассамблеи.
Civil War
В апреле 1922 группа из 200 бойцов ИРА-противников англо-ирландского соглашения заняла здание четырёх судов в Дублине. Коллинз, всеми силами желавший избежать гражданской войны, не пытался выдворить их оттуда вплоть до июня. Ему необходимо было узнать результаты всеобщих выборов в Ассамблею, по итогам которых его фракция набрала большинство голосов. Британия же требовала решительных действий. 22 июня сэр Генри Уилсон — британский фельдмаршал в отставке, который на тот момент служил военным советником в администрации Джеймса Крэйга (лидера юнионистов и первого премьер-министра Северной Ирландии) был застрелен двумя боевиками ИРА в лондонском районе Белгравия. В убийстве обвинили фракцию ИРА, выступавшую против договора, и Уинстон Черчилль потребовал от Коллинза, чтобы тот выбил из здания суда засевших там мятежников, иначе за дело возьмутся британские войска.
Впоследствии выяснилось, что убить Уилсона приказал сам Коллинз в расплату за неспособность властей Северной Ирландии предотвратить нападения на местных католиков. Об этом стало известно от Джо Долана — члена так называемого «Отряда» (иначе именуемого «12 Апостолов») и капитана Народной Армии. Также он рассказал, что Коллинз приказал ему вызволить исполнителей этого убийства, однако их всё же казнили. Как бы то ни было, лидер независимой Ирландии вынужден был принять меры против отколовшихся бойцов ИРА. Последней каплей стало похищение Дж. Дж. О'Конэла, генерала из состава временного правительства. Когда все попытки убедить мятежников покинуть судебную администрацию не увенчались успехом, Коллинз начал обстрел здания из двух 18-фунтовых орудий, чем и принудил их к сдаче. Это привело к вооруженным столкновениям в Дублине между войсками, верными временному правительству, и теми отрядами ИРА, которые выступали против соглашения с Англией (республиканцами).
В Ирландии началась гражданская война .
Армия под командованием Коллинза быстро установила контроль над столицей. В июле 1922 мятежные войска заняли южную провинцию Манстер и некоторые другие области страны. Вместе с группой парламентариев-противников договора де Валера примкнул к повстанцам. К середине того же года Коллинз сложил с себя полномочия председателя временного правительства, чтобы стать главнокомандующим Народной Армии — новообразованного формирования, ядром которого сделались верные англо-ирландскому соглашению части ИРА. Армия Свободного Государства, финансируемая и вооружаемая Британией, быстро наращивала личный состав и готовилась принять участие в гражданской войне. Вместе с Ричардом Мулкахи и Эоином О'Даффи Коллинз планирует серию десантных операций в районе Манстера. Страдая от серьёзной депрессии и желудочных болей, вопреки советам товарищей, которые всячески его отговаривали, он решает совершить поездку в родной Корк для подготовки предстоящего наступления. В ответ на уговоры друзей Коллинз заявил: «Они не убьют меня на моей же земле» . До сих пор не ясно, почему он подверг себя такой опасности, ведь значительная часть южных областей страны была занята неприятелем. По версии историка Майкла Хопкинса Коллинз отправился в эту поездку, чтобы встретиться с лидерами повстанцев и договориться о прекращении войны. В городе Корк он встретился с членами нейтральных формирований ИРА Шоном Хэгарти и Флори О'Донохью, дабы через их посредничество выйти на контакт с лидерами мятежников — Томом Барри и Томом Хэйлзом, и предложить им перемирие. Также Хопкинс говорит, что хоть де Валера находился тогда в том же районе, не было никакой вероятности его встречи с Коллинзом.
В дневнике Коллинза можно найти его план по заключению мира. Противники соглашения «должны принять волю народа», после чего могут «вернуться по домам, сдав оружие». «Мы не просим их изменять своим принципам». Коллинз утверждал, что Временное правительство является блюстителем народных интересов и останется в том же статусе. «Мы хотим избежать любых возможных жертв и разрушений, и не желаем прибегать к каким бы то ни было решительным действиям, в которых нет необходимости». В случае отказа противников принять эти условия, писал Коллинз, «вся кровь будет на их руках».
Death
Последняя известная прижизненная фотография Майкла Коллинза была сделана в 22 августа 1922 в Корке, когда он шёл позади армейской повозки.
По дороге в г. Бандон отряд Коллинза остановился, чтобы уточнить направление. Динни Лонг — прохожий, у которого они узнавали дорогу, являлся членом местных республиканских формирований ИРА. Было решено устроить засаду и напасть на Коллинза и его людей, когда они будут возвращаться из Бандона в Корк. Повстанцы знали, что их противники направятся в Корк по той же самой дороге, по которой шли оттуда, ибо две оставшихся были перегорожены так, что пройти по ним было невозможно. К 8 вечера, когда Коллинз со своими бойцами шли обратно, большая часть засадной группы под командованием Лиама Дизи находилась в близлежащем трактире. На позиции оставалось лишь 5 человек, которые и открыли огонь, завидев приближающийся отряд.
Перестрелка продолжалась около 20 минут. Вместо того, чтобы укрыться в бронированном автомобиле, Коллинз приказал своим солдатам занять позицию и открыть ответный огонь. Он же пал единственной жертвой этого скоротечного боя (однако, решись мятежники взорвать заложенную ими мину, потери были бы несомненно больше). Коллинзу был 31 год.
До сих пор нет единства в вопросе, кто же совершил роковой выстрел. Наиболее авторитетные авторы предполагают, что его произвёл Дэнис (Сонни) О'Нил (ум. 1950). Эта версия также подтверждается свидетельствами непосредственных участников боя. О'Нил стрелял экспансивными пулями типа «дум-дум» , которые разделяются на несколько частей при попадании в тело (Коллинз скончался от обширного черепного ранения). Опасаясь мести сторонников убитого, О'Нил выкинул оставшиеся пули. Тело Коллинза доставили в Корк, а оттуда кораблём переправили в Дублин (из опасения, что его могут выкрасть при перевозке посуху). Там тело было выставлено для последнего прощания в здании городского совета, куда стекались десятки тысяч скорбящих соотечественников. Панихида состоялась в дублинской церкви Св. Марии в присутствии ирландских и иностранных официальных лиц.
Смерть Майкла Коллинза вызвала появление множества «теорий заговора» внутри Ирландии, а личность убийцы до сих пор остаётся предметом споров. Некоторые республиканцы полагают, что лидер молодого государства пал от руки британского агента. Сторонники договора с Англией заявляют, что приказ на устранение Коллинза исходил напрямую от де Валера. Третьи считают, что он был убит одним из своих солдат — Джоком МакПиком, который, спустя 3 месяца после смерти своего командира, перешёл на сторону врага. Однако, историк Меда Райан, проведя основательное исследование обстоятельств того боя, пришла к выводу, что все эти заявлений совершенно беспочвенны. "Коллинза застрелил участник засады, который сам рассказывал об этом так: «Я снял одного». Лиам Дизи также сказал: «Мы все знали, что это была пуля Сонни Нила».
Personal life
Memory
In Culture
- В кинематографе
Жизнеописанию Майкла Коллинза посвящён одноимённый фильм 1996 года, с Лиамом Нисоном в главной роли. В фильме фигура Коллинза поставлена в центр драматических событий периода войны за независимость и гражданской войны, противопоставляясь Имону де Валера.
- В музыке
Ирландская фолк-метал группа Cruachan посвятила Майклу Коллинзу одноименную песню, вышедшую на альбоме « Pagan » в 2004 году.
Notes
- ↑ Coogan, pg 6.
- ↑ Coogan, pg 9.
- ↑ Examining Irish leader's youthful past (англ.) . BBC (22.06.2004). Дата обращения 7 сентября 2012. Архивировано 19 октября 2012 года.
- ↑ King's College London's list of notable alumni (англ.) . Дата обращения 7 сентября 2012.
- ↑ Mackay, pg 38.
- ↑ General Election: 14 December 1918 — Cork South (англ.) . electionsireland.org. Дата обращения 7 сентября 2012. Архивировано 19 октября 2012 года.
- ↑ Elections to Dáil Éireann (англ.) . electionsireland.org. Дата обращения 7 сентября 2012. Архивировано 19 октября 2012 года.
- ↑ Laffan, pg. 164
- ↑ Kautt, pg 71
Literature
- Coogan, Tim Pat. Michael Collins: The Man Who Made Ireland. — Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. — ISBN 0-312-29511-1 .
- Dwyer, T. Ryle. Big Fellow, Long Fellow: A Joint Biography of Collins and De Valera. — St. Martin's Press, 1999. — ISBN 0-7171-4084-9 .
- Dwyer, T. Ryle. The Squad and the Intelligence Operations of Michael Collins. — Mercier Press, 2005. — ISBN 1-85635-469-5 .
- Hart, Peter. Mick: The Real Michael Collins. — Penguin, 2006. — ISBN 0-67003147-X .
- Kautt, WH The Anglo-Irish War, 1916–1921: A People's War. — Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999. — ISBN 978-0-275-96311-8 .
- Laffan, Michael. The Resurrection of Ireland: The Sinn Féin Party, 1916-1923. — MCambridge University Press, 1999. — ISBN 0-52167267-8 .
- Mackay, James. Michael Collins: A Life. - Mainstream Publishing, 2005. - ISBN 1-85158-857-4 .
- Stewart, Anthony Terence Quincey. Michael Collins: The Secret File. - University of Michigan, 1997. - ISBN 0-85640-614-7 .
Links
- Collins Centre Michael (Eng.) . Date of treatment September 7, 2012. Archived October 19, 2012.
- 22 Collins Society (Eng.) . Date of treatment September 7, 2012. Archived October 19, 2012.