Bomb shelter

St. Petersburg, Cold War Refuge

A bomb shelter - a defensive structure, an object of civil defense , was intended to protect air bombs and shells , debris from destroyed buildings and the poisonous effects of toxic gases hidden from high-explosive and fragmentation effects. According to the last sign, it is the direct successor to gas shelters built in the 1920s and the first half of the 1930s. They were built from the 1930s to the 1940s and subsequently many were redeveloped as shelters from nuclear weapons.

Shelter shelters were widespread during World War II . ^{[lit 1]} In addition to specially constructed bomb shelters and basements adapted for the protective construction, in some large cities metro premises were used as bomb shelters.

One of the most famous bomb shelters of the Second World War is the Führerbunker , in which Hitler spent the last months. Later, during the Cold War , in countries embroiled in ideological confrontation and the arms race , anti-nuclear bunkers ^[1] and civilian shelters , called bomb shelters in the old fashion, were actively built.

Classification

Pre-war classification of protective structures in the USSR ^[lit.2] :

Category I bomb shelters: protection against all types of impacts of air attack weapons, including direct hit of heavy high-explosive bombs. Usually built with the expectation of 100-250 kg bombs;
Category II bomb shelters - shielding from shock waves, shrapnel and poisonous effects, collapse of buildings, fires; not designed for direct bomb hit;
Shelters of chemical protection , including gas masks (protective) rooms and chemical tents.

Category I bomb shelters

Overlap of category I bomb shelters in different countries

Type of ^{[# one]}	About- rash ^{[# 2]}	Mattress ^{[# 3]} Monolith ^{[# 4]}	Distribution layer ^{[# five]}	Wreck ^{[# 6]} Counter- spall ^{[# 7]}	Σ ^{[# eight]}	Weapon
Thickness of bombproof ceilings
	0.22 m	Reinforced concrete 0.075 m			0.3 m	Ignite. 5 kg bomb 100 m / s (USSR, 1937) ^{[lit 3]} ^{(P. 38, 39)}
Zem	1.3 m			Logs 0.2 m	1,5 m	Mine 81.4 mm 5.2 kg (2 kg BB ) (USSR, 1958) ^{[lit 4]} ^{(P. 18. 19)}
SL	0.3 m	Dry stone 0.6 m	0.6 m	Logs 0.25 m	1.75 m	105 mm howitzer shell (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 304)}
SL	0.3 m	Prefabricated reinforced concrete 0.3 m	0.6 m	Logs 0.25 m	1.45 m	105 mm howitzer shell (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 304)}
M		Concrete 0.2 m		?		High-explosive bomb 10 kg (7 kg explosive) (Poland, 1933) ^{[lit 6]} ^{(P. 19)}
M		Concrete 0.5 m (?)		?		A bomb of 50 kg (25 kg of explosives) (Poland, 1933) ^{[lit 6]} ^{(P. 19)}
M		Reinforced concrete 0.7 m		Specialist. armar.		Bomb 50 kg (France, England, Switzerland) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete 0.8 m		?		Bomb 50 kg (Belgium, Czechoslovakia) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete 0.9 m		I-beam number 20		A bomb of 50 kg with 30 kg of explosives (USSR, 1941) ^{[lit 8]} ^{(p. 19),} ^{[lit 9]} ^{(p. 30)}
M		Reinforced concrete grades 400 1.1 m		I-beam number 14		50 kg bomb (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 19)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.3 m		-		A bomb of 50 kg with a charge of 30 kg (USSR, 1941) ^{[lit 8]} ^{(S. 19)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.3 m		?		Bomb 50 kg (Switzerland) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete marks 250 1.25 m		I-beam number 14		50 kg bomb (USSR, 1940) ^{[lit 10]} ^{(S. 162, 205, 256)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.2 m		I-beam number 20		A bomb of 50 kg, 25 kg of explosives , 227 m / s (USSR) ^{[lit 9]} ^{(p. 38),} ^{[lit 9]} ^{(p. 30)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.6 m		-		A bomb of 50 kg, a charge of 25 kg, 227 m / s (USSR) ^{[lit 9]} ^{(S. 38)} .
M		Concrete 1 m		?		Bomb 50 kg (France) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Concrete 1.3 m		?		Bomb 50 kg (Czechoslovakia) ^{[lit. 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Concrete grade 150 1.4 m		?		Bomb 50 kg (England, Switzerland) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
SL	0.5 m	Reinforced concrete 0.4 m	0.8 m	rails 0.14 m	1.84 m	A bomb of 50 kg (USSR, 1940) ^{[lit 10]} ^{(S. 159)}
SL	0.3 m	Prefabricated reinforced concrete 0.45 m	0.9 m	Logs 0.5 m	2.15 m	A bomb of 50 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Dry stone 0.9 m	0.9 m	Logs 0.5 m	2.6 m	A bomb of 50 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	1m	3 rows of logs 0.75 m	1,5 m	Logs 0.5 m	3.75 m	A bomb of 50 kg (USSR, 1940) ^{[lit 10]} ^{(S. 158)}
		Brick 3.6-4 m				Bomb 50 kg (Belgium, Switzerland) ^{[lit. 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
Thun.		Land 5-7.3 m				Bomb 50 kg (France, Switzerland, Belgium) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Concrete 1 m		?		Aerial bomb 100 kg (50 kg explosives) (Poland, 1933) ^{[lit 6]} ^{(P. 19)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.1 m		(special arm.)		Aerial bomb 100 kg (England, Czechoslovakia) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete grades 400 1.2 m		I-beam number 20		Aerial bomb 100 (114) kg, 60 kg BB, 200 m / s (USSR) ^{[lit 8]} ^{(p. 19),} ^{[lit 9]} ^{(p. 30),} ^{[lit 4]} ^{(p. 60)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.2 m		?		Aerial bomb 100 kg (France) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.4 m		?		Aerial bomb 100 kg (Belgium) ^{[lit. 7]} ^{(P. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete grade 250 1.5 m		I-beam number 20		Aerial bomb 100 kg (USSR, 1940) ^{[lit 10]} ^{(p. 162),} ^{[lit 9]} ^{(p. 30)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.55 m		-		Aerial bomb 100 kg, shelter (Germany, 1930s) ^{[lit 11]} .
M		Reinforced concrete 1.6 m		-		Aerial bomb 100 kg, charge 60 kg (USSR) ^{[lit. 8]} ^{(P. 19)}
M		Reinforced concrete grade 220 1.7 m		-		Aerial bomb 100 kg (Switzerland) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Concrete 1.7 m				Aerial bomb 100 kg (France, Czechoslovakia) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Concrete grade 150 2.1 m		?		Aerial bomb 100 kg (Switzerland, England) ^{[lit. 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
SL	0.3 m	Prefabricated reinforced concrete 0.45 m	0.6 m	Rail 0.15 m	1,5 m	Aerial bomb 100 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Reinforced concrete M400 0.6 m	1.6 m		↑ 2.5 m	Aerial bomb 100 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Reinforced concrete M200 0.8 m	1.8 m		↑ 2.9 m	Aerial bomb 100 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	But concrete 1.1 m	1.8 m		↑ 3.2 m	Aerial bomb 100 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Kamen. masonry 1.4 m	1.8 m		↑ 3.5 m	Aerial bomb 100 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Dry stone 2.2 m	1.8 m		↑ 4.3 m	Aerial bomb 100 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Dry stone 2 m	1.75 m	Logs 0.2 m	4.25 m	Aerial bomb 100 kg (USSR, 1958) ^{[lit 4]} ^{(S. 37-41)}
		Brick 5-6 m				Aerial bomb 100 kg (Belgium, Switzerland) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
Thun.		Land 8-10 m				Aerial bomb 100 kg (France, Switzerland, Belgium) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.8 m		I-beam number 26		A 200 kg bomb (80 kg of explosives) with 3 km 250 m / s (USSR) ^{[lit 9]} ^{(p. 31)} .
M		Reinforced concrete 2.2 m		-		A 200 kg bomb (80 kg of explosives) with 3 km 250 m / s (USSR) ^{[lit 9]} ^{(p. 31)} .
M		Reinforced concrete 1.6 m		I-beam number 26		Aerial bomb 250 kg BB 150 kg (USSR) ^{[lit 8]} ^{(p. 19),} ^{[lit 9]} ^{(p. 30)}
M		Reinforced concrete 2.2 m		-		Aerial bomb 250 kg BB 150 kg (USSR) ^{[lit. 8]} ^{(P. 19)}
Thun.		Concrete or rock 2.5 m		-		Aerial bomb 250 kg (Italy, 1936) ^{[lit. 12]} ^{(S. 90)}
SL	0.3 m	Reinforced concrete M400 0.7 m	2.4 m		↑ 3.4 m	Aerial bomb 250 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Reinforced concrete M200 1 m	2.7 m		↑ 4 m	Aerial bomb 250 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Reinforced concrete 0.7-1 m	2.7 m	Logs ~ 0.5 m	~ 4.5 m	Aerial bomb 250 kg (USSR, 1947) ^{[lit 13]}
SL	0.3 m	Butobeton 1.4 m	2.7 m		↑ 4.4 m	Aerial bomb 250 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Kamen. masonry 1.8 m	2.7 m		↑ 4.8 m	Aerial bomb 250 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
SL	0.3 m	Dry stone 2.2 m	2.7 m		↑ 5.2 m	Aerial bomb 250 kg (USSR, 1946) ^{[lit 5]} ^{(S. 305)}
Thun.		Land 14 m				Aerial bomb 250 kg (Italy, 1936) ^{[lit. 12]} ^{(S. 90)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.4 m		Specialist. armar.		Bomb 300 kg (France, England, Switzerland) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete 1.5 m		?		300 kg bomb (Czechoslovakia) ^{[lit. 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Concrete 2 m		?		Bomb 300 kg (150 kg BB) (Poland, 1933) ^{[lit 6]} ^{(P. 19)}
M		Reinforced concrete grade 220 2.1 m		-		Bomb 300 kg (Switzerland) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Concrete 2.1-2.3 m				Bomb 300 kg (France, Czechoslovakia) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Concrete grade 150 2.8 m				Bomb 300 kg (Switzerland, England) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
		Brick 4 m				Bomb 300 kg (France) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
		Brick 7.5 m				Bomb 300 kg (Switzerland) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
Thun.		Land 12-13 m				Bomb 300 kg (France, Switzerland) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete 2 m		I-beam No. 30		Aerial bomb 500 kg with a charge. 300 kg (USSR) ^{[lit 8]} ^{(p. 19),} ^{[lit 9]} ^{(p. 30)}
M		Rex 2.8 m		-		Aerial bomb 500 kg with a charge of 300 kg (USSR) ^{[lit. 8]} ^{(P. 19)}
M		Concrete 3.5 m		?		Aerial bomb 500 kg (300 kg BB) (Poland, 1933) ^{[lit 6]} ^{(P. 19)}
M		Reinforced concrete 2 m				Bomb 1000 kg (France) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete 2.5 m		I-beam No. 30		A 1000 kg bomb with a charge of 600 kg (USSR) ^{[lit. 8]} ^{(p. 19),} ^{[lit. 9]} ^{(p. 30)}
M		Reinforced concrete 3,5 m		-		1000 kg bomb with a charge of 600 kg (USSR) ^{[lit. 8]} ^{(P. 19)}
M		Concrete 3–3.5 m				Bomb 1000 kg (France, Czechoslovakia) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Concrete 4 m		-		A bomb of 1000 kg, concrete coating (France, 1930) ^{[lit 11]} .
M		Concrete 4.5 m		?		Bomb 1000 kg (650 kg BB) (Poland, 1933) ^{[lit 6]} ^{(P. 19)}
		Brick 6 m				Bomb 1000 kg (France) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
Thun.		Land 20-21 m				Bomb 1000 kg (France, Belgium) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 45)}
M		Reinforced concrete 3.15 m		I-beam		Aerial bomb 2000 kg (USSR) ^{[lit. 8]} ^{(P. 18)}
M		Reinforced concrete 4.4 m		-		Aerial bomb 2000 kg (USSR) ^{[lit. 8]} ^{(P. 18)}
M		Reinforced concrete vault 5 m		Specialist. armar.		Aerial bomb 2000 kg (USSR) ^{[lit. 14]} ^{(P. 69)}
M		Concrete over 30 m				1 kiloton nuclear charge ^{[lit. 15]}
Type of ^{[# one]}	About- rash ^{[# 2]}	Mattress ^{[# 3]} Monolith ^{[# 4]}	Distribution layer ^{[# five]}	Wreck ^{[# 6]} Cracking ^{[# 7]}	Σ ^{[# eight]}	Notes
Notes ↑ ¹ ² Type of shelter overlap: Zem - earthly; M - monolithic of reinforced concrete or concrete; Words - layered of several layers of different materials; Thun. - tunneling with an undisturbed layer of earth. ↑ ¹ ² External sprinkling of the structure. ↑ ¹ ² Mattress - in a layered ceiling, a layer of solid material (concrete, stone, brick), which serves to keep the bomb from penetrating and taking over the energy of the explosion. ↑ ¹ ² Monolith - in a monolithic shelter the thickness of the entire ceiling. ↑ ¹ ² In a layered ceiling, a layer of earth to distribute and mitigate the burden of an explosion may include clay or an air layer at the bottom of ~ 10 cm. ↑ ¹ ^{2 The} skeleton of the shelter, it is the ceiling; in wood-earth laminated shelters, the span of a log ceiling is made no more than 3 m with a run into two logs, no more than 2.5 m into one log thick, and for a bomb of 100 kg or more, a span of no more than 2 m wide. ↑ ¹ ² Anti-school device from the bottom of the monolithic overlap, which allows reducing its thickness to the size of the radius of destruction: reinforced lower reinforcing mesh, channel , rails laid close to each other, but best of all - I- beams spaced at small intervals (15-20 cm) and in the gaps on the lower shelves of the I-beams are sheets of iron 0.5 cm thick or 5 cm boards, concrete is poured on top. A dash indicates the absence of an anti-school device. ↑ ¹ ² The total thickness of the overlap; the “↑” sign means that the amount must be increased by the thickness of the selected skeleton material.

It can be seen that the design of long-term bomb shelters from direct hit by high-explosive charges is much more solid than most modern shelters from a nuclear explosion. Therefore, old shelters of the first category with well-preserved structural elements can be used from modern means of attack.

Subway I bomb shelter

In Moscow, Berlin, London, underground metro rooms were used as bomb shelters. Good protection of stations and tunnels is provided by their strong lining and a large layer of soil. But the metro has its own protection restrictions. It was believed that high-explosive bombs weighing 250-500 kg with an accurate hit could collapse the walls of tunnels ^{[lit 6]} ^{(p. 22)} (probably with their shallow laying).

Arrangement of a Category I bomb shelter in the basement

Because of the economy and lack of free sites in densely built-up cities, bomb shelters were often located in the basement of existing houses. From a defense point of view, it is advantageous to place shelter from bombs in the basement of a multi-storey building, since overlying floor floors slow down the bomb and, before reaching the basement, it explodes somewhere on the first floors. For example, a bomb-proof reinforced concrete ceiling of a basement shelter with a thickness of 80 cm and 5-6 ordinary reinforced concrete ceilings replace a reinforced concrete monolith of 155 cm thick ^{[lit 7]} ^{(P. 48)} (from the bomb ~ 100 kg). This does not apply to a low-rise building of an old construction with wooden floors and a basement shelter if it falls under a medium caliber bomb with an explosion moderator. A 50 kg bomb can pass through such a four-story building, almost not noticing the ceilings and, having buried itself in the basement, explode, completely destroying the building ^{[lit 13]} ^{(p. 6)} . Sometimes there were cases of rebound from floors and walls, but you can’t count on this.

In besieged Leningrad, in 4-5-story brick houses of the old foundation with wooden floors, bombs of 50-250 kg more often exploded on the floor of the first floor, in a house with six floors they stopped on the second floor. Moreover, the explosion of such bombs can break down another 2–4 underlying wooden ceilings (if they were) and completely destroy the brick walls at a distance of 15–25 m from the site of the explosion. With reinforced concrete ceilings, the number pierced by a bomb is usually limited to 2-3 ceilings; 1-2 more ceilings collapse from the explosion, respectively, shelter in a house from five floors can be arranged even on the first floor ^[lit.16] ^{(S. 26, 27, 37, 67, 70, 72)} with the corresponding strengthening of the walls, but better in the basement .

The shock wave pressure acting on the ceiling of the basement shelter, when the usual reinforced concrete floor of the upper blind windowless floor is destroyed above the shelter, is reduced by 14-22% (at the initial pressure from 0.05 to 0.3 MPa) ^{[lit. 17]} ^{(P. 233, 234)} , which is important when using the old bomb shelter to protect against modern weapons.

Category II bomb shelters

Before the war, it was believed that it was not advisable for most shelters to give strength from direct hit of ammunition, since this required special construction, a lot of building materials and time, it was very expensive and could not be done in an acceptable time. Therefore, such shelters were carried out only for especially important institutions. The probability of a direct hit of a bomb in a particular house was small, but the possibility of collapsing walls from a shock wave and seismic movement of the soil is much greater; the radius of breaking glass and dangerous scattering of their fragments is especially large.

Most of the bomb shelters prepared for World War II for the population were of the II category, that is, for protection mainly from the shock wave of a nearby explosion, the fall of house debris and the ingress of toxic gases and smoke. Such a shelter can be arranged in the basement of any solid stone and brick house and it is enough for it to have a strong and tight ceiling that can hold the wreckage of a collapsed building, and strong doors. To do this, the basement ceiling was reinforced with all kinds of screeds, supports, an additional layer of reinforced concrete, cellars with vaulted and concrete ceilings were preferred. Windows and excess doorways were closed up.

According to German rules ^{[lit 12]} ^{(p. 53)} ^{[lit 3]} ^{(p. 31)} , closing the bomb shelter in the basement in the event of a brick house collapse must withstand the following additional load:

building up to 2 floors 1500 kg / m²;
building up to 4 floors 2000 kg / m²;
building up to 6 floors 2500 kg / m².

According to other sources ^{[lit. 7]} ^{(p. 87),} German standards read as follows:

building up to 3 floors 2000 kg / m²;
building up to 4-5 floors 2500 kg / m²;
building over 5 floors 3000 kg / m².

Swiss rules ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 87)} :

building on the 1st floor 2200 kg / m²;
1000 kg / m² is added to each next floor.

English standards (1939) ^{[lit 7]} ^{(S. 86, 87)} :

building of 2 floors 1000 kg / m²;
3-4 floor building 1500 kg / m²;
building over 4 floors 2000 kg / m²;
frame-type building (regardless of number of storeys) 1000 kg / m².

Some foreign authors considered it necessary to raise the standard for a four-story building to 5,000-6,000 kg / m² ^{[lit 3]} ^{(p. 31)} , probably to give the bomb shelter a margin of safety to withstand the shock wave and in case large fragments with sharp edges fall in some places .

In the USSR, their own methods of calculation were proposed. One of the calculations gave the following load standards for the basement with a floor height of 3.5 m, the distance between the bearing walls 5 m, the thickness of the brick walls 0.54 m, wooden mezzanine and reinforced concrete attic floors ^{[lit 3]} ^{(P. 33)} :

building on 2 floors 1000 kg / m²;
building on 3 floors 1600 kg / m²;
building on 4 floors 2200 kg / m²;
building in 5 floors of 2800 kg / m²;
building with 6 floors 3400 kg / m²;
the building on the 7th floor is 2200 kg / m², with a further increase in the number of storeys, the load decreases and, starting from the 9th floor, it stabilizes at 1600 kg / m².

The requirements for the walls of the second category of refuge were as follows (Germany) ^{[lit. 12]} ^{(p. 67)} :

the external walls of brick must be at least 0.51 m thick (two bricks), from reinforced concrete at least 0.4 m;
internal walls, respectively, at least 0.38 (1.5 bricks) and 0.3 m reinforced concrete.

For example, a multi-room shelter (Germany), located on the ground floor in a building without a basement, with a thickness of reinforced concrete walls and an overlap of 0.4 m and a minimum ceiling span of 3-4 m, according to calculation, could withstand a load from collapse of up to 3500 kg / m² (0.035 MPa ) and a sufficiently strong shock wave ^{[lit. 13]} ^{(P. 38, 42)} .

Entrance to the Leningrad basement bomb shelter. Visible metal security door

The rubble foundations adopted in pre-revolutionary Russian and pre-war Soviet construction , 0.75-0.95 m thick, fully complied with the strength requirements of the second category shelter. For example, a foundation wall 0.75 m thick from masonry could withstand a 50 kg bomb explosion at a distance of up to 2 m, 100 kg 3 m, 250 kg no closer than 5 m ^{[lit 3]} ^{(P. 115)} .

As the war showed, focusing on whirlwinds of low strength, but the numerous bomb shelters for the population in almost every yard turned out to be correct. In Leningrad, with extremely intensive bombardments and shelling, cases of direct hit by high-explosive bombs in a building with a basement bomb shelter were rare, of which only about 20% ended in severe damage to shelters, ~ 40-45% of cases were local damage, the remaining episodes were limited to the collapse of the ground part of the house ^[lit.16] ^{(S. 125, 126)} . Probably, the relatively rare complete destruction of shelters, despite the good penetration of wooden floors (see above), is explained by the fact that the shelters did not occupy the entire basement of the house that fell under the bomb.

Sources

↑ Military Encyclopedic Dictionary / Prev Ch. ed. Commission N.V. Ogarkov. - M .: Military Publishing, 1983 .-- S. 30 .-- 863 p.
↑ Linnik A. M. Air defense of industrial facilities / Ed. Major V. G. Egorov. - M .: Publishing sector of the All-Union. Prom. Academy, 1940. - S. 161. - 180 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ ⁴ ⁵ Kukanov V.V. Shelters of air defense for the population . - [M.]: Military-Engineering Edition. Acad, 1937 .-- 196 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ Lisogor A. A. Protective structures of defensive structures and their calculation. (A manual for students on fortification) / Ed. Gen. Ing. troops M.I. Maryina. - M .: Lenizdat, 1958.- 67 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ ⁴ ⁵ ⁶ ⁷ ⁸ ⁹ ¹⁰ ¹¹ ¹² ¹³ ¹⁴ ¹⁵ ¹⁶ Manual for the engineering troops. Field fortification. (PF-43) . - THE USSR. Military charters and manuals. - M .: Military Publishing, 1946 .-- 363 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ ⁴ ⁵ ⁶ ⁷ A. Linnik. Air threat and defense of an industrial facility . - M. - L .: Oborongiz, 1939 .-- 104 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ ⁴ ⁵ ⁶ ⁷ ⁸ ⁹ ¹⁰ ¹¹ ¹² ¹³ ¹⁴ ¹⁵ ¹⁶ ¹⁷ ¹⁸ ¹⁹ ²⁰ ²¹ ²² ²³ ²⁴ ²⁵ ²⁶ ²⁷ ²⁸ ²⁹ ³⁰ ³¹ ³² Manasevich A. D. Construction measures for air defense of industrial facilities . - M .: Oborongiz, 1941 .-- 240 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ ⁴ ⁵ ⁶ ⁷ ⁸ ⁹ ¹⁰ ¹¹ ¹² Protection of structures and equipment from high-explosive bombs . - M. - L .: Gosenergoizdat, 1941 .-- 28 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ ⁴ ⁵ ⁶ ⁷ ⁸ ⁹ ¹⁰ ¹¹ Pangksen A.I. Design of the profile of a defensive structure. L., Edition of the Military Technical Academy of the Red Army. T. Dzerzhinsky, 1931 .-- 76 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ ⁴ Manual for the engineering troops. Field fortifications. (PF-39) . - THE USSR. Military charters and manuals. - M .: Military Publishing, 1940 .-- 272 p.
↑ ¹ ² Schossberger, G. Construction and Technical Air Defense / Ed. military man. Ing. 2 ranks of V.V. Kukanov. - M. - L .: Military Publishing House of Min. USSR Defense, 1937. - 192 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ ⁴ Collection of translated articles on construction and technical measures for air defense / Ed. ed. military service. 2nd rank of V.V. Kukanov. - M. - L .: Onti. Chap. ed. builds. liters, 3 type. Onti in Lgr, 1937 .-- 123 p.
↑ ¹ ² ³ Construction measures of air defense. Collection of articles / Ed. Ing. N. I. Malova. - M. - L .: Onti. Chap. ed. builds. literature, school of the Federal Law College of the Polygraphbook Trust, 1936. - 50 p.
↑ Khmelkov S.A. Concrete and reinforced concrete land fortifications . - Edition of the Military Technical Academy of the Red Army. V.V. Kuibyshev. - M. , 1937. Archived on March 4, 2011. Archived March 4, 2011 on Wayback Machine
↑ Nelson RW, Low-Yield Earth-Penetrating nuclear weapons // Science and Global Security, 2002, v. 10, pp. 1–20 (Russian translation: Science and Global Security, Volume 10, Number 1 (December 2002)).
↑ ¹ ² Morozov K.D. Building accidents as a result of the bombing. The experience of analysis . - [L.]: Lenizdat, 1944. - 153 p.
↑ Civil Defense Shelters. Designs and calculation / V. A. Kotlyarevsky, V. I. Ganushkin, A. A. Kostin and others; Ed. V.A. Kotlyarevsky. - M .: Stroyizdat , 1989 .-- 605 p. ISBN 5-274-00515-2 .

Notes

↑ Great Britain sells government bomb shelter . Lenta.ru

Links

Waiting for the end of the world. Bomb shelters. Photo Richard Ross

[p1-4] ¹ ² Type of shelter overlap:
Zem - earthly;
M - monolithic of reinforced concrete or concrete;
Words - layered of several layers of different materials;
Thun. - tunneling with an undisturbed layer of earth.

[p2-5] ¹ ² External sprinkling of the structure.

[p3-6] ¹ ² Mattress - in a layered ceiling, a layer of solid material (concrete, stone, brick), which serves to keep the bomb from penetrating and taking over the energy of the explosion.

[p4-7] ¹ ² Monolith - in a monolithic shelter the thickness of the entire ceiling.

[p5-8] ¹ ² In a layered ceiling, a layer of earth to distribute and mitigate the burden of an explosion may include clay or an air layer at the bottom of ~ 10 cm.

[p6-9] ¹ ^{2 The} skeleton of the shelter, it is the ceiling; in wood-earth laminated shelters, the span of a log ceiling is made no more than 3 m with a run into two logs, no more than 2.5 m into one log thick, and for a bomb of 100 kg or more, a span of no more than 2 m wide.

[p7-10] ¹ ² Anti-school device from the bottom of the monolithic overlap, which allows reducing its thickness to the size of the radius of destruction: reinforced lower reinforcing mesh, channel , rails laid close to each other, but best of all - I- beams spaced at small intervals (15-20 cm) and in the gaps on the lower shelves of the I-beams are sheets of iron 0.5 cm thick or 5 cm boards, concrete is poured on top. A dash indicates the absence of an anti-school device.

[p8-11] ¹ ² The total thickness of the overlap; the “↑” sign means that the amount must be increased by the thickness of the selected skeleton material.

[b11-1] Military Encyclopedic Dictionary / Prev Ch. ed. Commission N.V. Ogarkov. - M .: Military Publishing, 1983 .-- S. 30 .-- 863 p.

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[2] Great Britain sells government bomb shelter . Lenta.ru