Aurelian

Aurelian was born on September 9, 214 ^[4] in the family of a farmer who rented land from Senator Aurelius ^[5] . His mother was the priestess of the cult of the Invincible Sun ^[6] . Opinions of ancient authors differ on the place of birth of Aurelian: Eutropius claims that he was born in Dacia Coastal ^[7] ; the author of the biography of Aurelian in The History of Augustus - in Sirmia ^[8] . The History of Augustus also tells us that there were omens that said Aurelian would become emperor ^[9] .

Having become a Roman citizen, Aurelian changed the lifestyle of a farmer to the lifestyle of a legionnaire ^[4] . He successfully served in the Roman army. Brave and decisive, Aurelian early attracted the attention of commanders who predicted him a successful military career. He was a tribune of the VI Gallic Legion and participated in the campaign against the Franks on the Rhine ^{[2] [10] [11]} , then the ambassador to Persia ^[12] . According to the assumption of Leon Homo, before serving in Gaul, Aurelian was the centurion of the cohort under the reign of Gordian III ^[10] . Under Valerian, Aurelian was probably appointed consul-suffice (although his consulate was nowhere registered except for the History of Augustus) ^[13] . It is sometimes believed that data on his career until 268 are made up ^[3] .

During the reign of Emperor Gallien, Aurelian became the head of the cavalry detachment ^[4] . Having learned about the invasion of the Goths into Greece, Gallien marched against them with an army, the command structure of which, most likely, was Aurelian ^[14] . However, during this campaign, one of the emperor's generals, Avreol , rebelled and occupied the fortress of Mediolan . Therefore, Gallienus was forced to besiege the fortress; in the same year, during the siege of Mediolanus, he was killed by the conspirators ^[15] . According to one source, Aurelian was involved in a conspiracy against Gallien ^[16] . He supported the new emperor Claudius II , who also, apparently, participated in the plot ^[17] .

Under Claudius II, Aurelianus ascended to the top of his military career. When the war with the Goths began, all Roman cavalry was under his command ^[4] . Aurelianus became the right hand of the emperor Claudius ^[18] . His cavalry played a decisive role in the Battle of Nis ^[19] . The Goths were defeated in this war, and Aurelian earned the glory of an excellent commander. He repeatedly conducted independent military operations against the barbarians in the Balkans, which ended in victory for the Romans ^[20] .

The war against Avreola, which led to the concentration of large forces in Italy, allowed the Alemans to break through the defense of the Upper Danube border. Through the River and the Alps, they freely entered northern Italy and began to rob the area. At the beginning of 269, Emperor Claudius and Aurelian traveled north and defeated the Alemans at the Battle of Lake Benac ^[21] .

At this time, news came from the Balkans that the Heruli , Goths , Gepids and Bastars had attacked . Claudius immediately sends Aurelian to the Balkans to resist the invasion until Claudius arrives with the main army ^[22] . The Goths who besieged Thessaloniki , learning about the approach of the Romans, began to retreat from Northern Macedonia . Aurelian with his cavalry intercepted them and defeated in a series of minor skirmishes, as a result of which three thousand enemy soldiers died ^[22] . Aurelian continued to pursue the enemy, driving them north into Upper Moesia , where Emperor Claudius gathered the main army. The battle was indecisive, but the Goths were stopped, despite the heavy losses of the Romans ^[22] . But the emperor ambushed the Gothic army and defeated them, while Aurelian pursued the enemy with his cavalry ^[23] . The Goths retreated to the Gem mountains , where they were locked. But due to the inattention of the Romans, they managed to escape and continue their campaign through Thrace ^[23] .

Emperor Claudius returned to Sirmius, leaving Aurelian to be responsible for operations against the Goths ^[23] . Aurelian successfully fought with the Goths, but he did not have time to enjoy the victory: in late August, news came from Sirmia that the emperor Claudius died ^[24] . Aurelian quickly ended the hostilities against the Goths, freeing Ankhial and Nikopol from the siege ^[3] .

Climbing the throne

In 270, Claudius died of the plague, and his brother Quintill seized power with the support of the Roman Senate ^[23] . What is characteristic of that time, the army refused to recognize the new emperor, preferring that one of the military leaders become emperor. Aurelian was proclaimed emperor in May ^[25] or September ^[26] 270 by the Pannonian legions ^[4] and set off on a campaign against Quintill. Quintill, learning about the proclamation of Aurelian as emperor, first wanted to fight with him for power, but when he saw that the soldiers did not intend to support him, he opened his veins ^[23] .

Later they began to claim that Claudius on his deathbed appointed Aurelian as his heir, but most likely this was invented in order to show the legitimacy of Aurelian's ascension to the throne ^[4] . The new emperor faced a difficult task - to unite the Roman Empire and restore its former greatness ^[27] .

The most complete description of Aurelian was left by the author of The History of Augustus :

“... Aurelian had an attractive appearance, distinguished by courageous beauty; he was quite tall, had very great physical strength, had some passion for wine and food, but rarely succumbed to love passion. He was immensely strict, maintained particularly strict discipline, liked to draw his sword ... ” ^[28]

Eutropius says that Aurelian "husband in military affairs is very skilled, but intemperate and prone to cruelty" ^[29] . Aurelius Victor calls Aurelian strict and incorruptible ^[30] . In the sculptural images Aurelian is shown as a typical military leader of that time with short cropped hair, roughly shaved cheeks and a small beard ^[31] .

In 248, Emperor Philip Arab celebrated the millennium of Rome on a grand scale, proving that the empire is still very powerful. However, in reality, the situation was not the best ^[32] . In subsequent years, the empire had to face tremendous pressure from external enemies, and at the same time, it was in danger of civil war. The Roman economy suffered from this, agriculture and trade fell into decay. In addition, the plague epidemic claimed many lives, thereby weakening Rome; the amount of labor has decreased. As a result, the empire could not withstand the blow of the stronger Persia, and in 260 Emperor Valerian I was captured ^[33] .

The eastern provinces found their patrons in the person of the rulers of the city of Palmyra in Syria, whose autonomy grew until the formation of the Palmyra kingdom. The western provinces formed an autonomous state within the Roman Empire, which is now known as the Gallic Empire. In Rome, the emperor was occupied with internal threats and the defense of Italy and the Balkans. Aurelianus had to face all these problems ^[4] .

Rebuilding an Empire

Conflict with Vandals

The first actions of the new emperor were aimed at strengthening their positions in the remaining Roman territories. Almost immediately at the beginning of his reign, a large army of vandals crossed the Danube and invaded Pannonia in the area between Aquincum and Brigetion ^[34] . They were supposedly supported by tongues ^[34] . Upon learning of this, Aurelian moved with his army to Aquileia , where he began to prepare the troops for the campaign ^[35] . After this, the Romans moved from Italy to Pannonia , where they arrived at the end of 270.

Aurelianus chose Sisius as his base ^[35] . Then he entered his first consulate ^[36] . At that time, vandals plundered Roman settlements because of a lack of provisions, so Aurelian ordered "to shelter food, livestock and everything valuable from enemies in the cities" ^[37] . When the Princeps decided that his troops were ready for the campaign, he advanced against the vandals. In Pannonia, a battle took place between the Roman army and the Vandal forces, in which the Romans won a decisive victory ^[37] . The next day, the barbarians sent ambassadors asking for peace. Aurelian ordered them to be given food, on condition that they set aside two thousand horsemen for the Roman cavalry, and released them beyond the Danube ^[38] . One of the sons of the leader of the vandals or tongues was also taken hostage ^[39] . However, during the retreat, a group of five hundred vandals left the main army and violated the contract with the connivance of their leader ^[40] . But soon the Romans killed the entire detachment to the last man, and their leader was executed in front of the rulers of the vandals and tongues ^[41] . Then the vandals, divided into small units, left the territory of the empire and returned peacefully to their borders ^[41] .

Defeat of the Alemanni, Marcomannians, Yutungs

After that, the yutungs having plundered Norik, crossed the Alps and marched to Italy ^[38] . Perhaps they were joined by Marcomannians and Alemanni ^[38] . Having entered the plain of the Po River, they occupied Placentia and moved to Pavia ^[42] . The exact cause of the attack by the yutungs is unknown. It is likely that the lack of provisions forced them to leave their acquired places ^[43] . Their army numbered about 40 thousand soldiers ^[44] .

The situation was serious. Then the emperor, who was in Sirmia, gathered an army and quickly moved to Italy ^[45] . He left small units to control the withdrawal of the vandals from Pannonia. When Aurelianus was at Mediolanus , he sent a letter to the Germans, in which he ordered them to surrender to the Romans. However, they answered that they are free people and if Aurelian wants to fight, they will come out to meet him ^[38] . The Yutungs continued their march further into Italy. The Roman army continued on its way, but, tired of the long passage, was ambushed near Placentia and was defeated ^{[42] [K 1]} . When the news of the defeat reached Rome, it aroused great fear of the arrival of the barbarians, because more often than not, battles with external enemies were conducted away from the capital ^[47] .

However, Aurelian, quickly collecting an army, attacked the Alemannic camp near the Metavr River, near the city of the Altar of Fortune , and defeated them; many barbarians drowned in the river ^[47] . As a result, the Alemannic, Marcomannian and youtungs requested peace. There is a story about the reception of princeps barbarian ambassadors. His troops were deployed on both sides with a crescent moon. Ahead stood officers on horseback with the emperor, behind whom were visible many standards ^[48] . The stunned ambassadors immediately began to ask for the resumption of peace ^[48] . Aurelian accepted their offer, and the barbarians turned back, leaving on the same road that they had come. At Titin, Aurelian ambushed them, and during the battle that took place, all the barbarians were destroyed ^[49] . Some of the few survivors formed small units and continued to fight, but they were also soon defeated ^[49] .

The emperor returned to Rome in the winter of 271–272 ^[4] , where he received the title of "German Greatest" ^[36] . Nevertheless, there remained a great danger of attacks by the Germanic tribes, and Aurelian decided to enclose Rome with a powerful wall, which is known as the Aurelian wall ^[50] . It was a rampart about 19 kilometers long (which far exceeds the length of the walls of Servius Tullius ) with a thickness of about four and a height of six meters ^[3] . The construction consisted of eighteen single and double gates, protected by watch towers, where the catapults were located ^[3] . Nevertheless, this wall was not a capital structure, but was intended only to repel an unexpected attack by an enemy who did not have siege weapons ^[3] . In addition, the wall construction was quite simple, because the work used only civilians: the soldiers could not be allocated due to the tense situation at the borders ^[3] .

At about the same time, the baths of Caracalla were restored and new barracks were built for the Praetorians ^[51] . A statue of Mercury was erected on the Sacred Road ^[52] , and a new forum was built in Ostia ^[53] .

271 Uprising

The barbarian invasions led to several uprisings. Septimius revolted in Dalmatia, but he was soon killed by his own soldiers. ^[54] At the same time, a certain Urban proclaimed himself emperor ^[55] ; however, there is speculation that this usurper was fictitious ^[56] . About 271 years in Gaul rebelled a certain Domitian II ^[57] . It is known for several coins. Perhaps he was a former commander of Gallien ^[58] .

The largest was the uprising of Felicissim , the chief of the fiscal , whose duties also included managing the state treasury. Он подстрекал рабочих монетных дворов портить монету ^[59] однако вскоре его обман был раскрыт. Фелициссим поднял восстание и заперся на Целийском холме ^[59] . Мятеж был подавлен с большим трудом; по словам Аврелия Виктора, семь тысяч солдат были убиты во время этого восстания ^[59] . Сам Фелициссим погиб. В результате были казнены несколько сенаторов и всадников ^[60] . Нет никаких сведений, что Фелициссим пытался провозгласить себя императором. Согласно Аврелию Виктору, Фелициссим восстал в 274 году после падения Галльской империи ^[4] , но если верить остальным источникам, это произошло в 271 году ^{[55] [61]} . В «Извлечениях о жизни и нравах римских императоров» утверждается, что восстание Фелициссима произошло после мятежа Септимия 271 года. Поэтому последняя дата считается более приемлемой ^[4] .

Война с готами

Готы по-прежнему представляли серьёзную угрозу для римлян. Пока Аврелиан был занят войной в Италии, они нападали на Фракию, Дакию и Мёзию ^[50] . Прекратив военные действия в Италии, Аврелиан сразу же отправился на войну с готами ^[50] . Ему удалось победить их и изгнать к северу от Дуная . Императорская армия преследовала готов и нанесла им тяжёлые потери ^[50] . В этой войне погиб готский вождь Каннабад ^[62] , а также около пяти тысяч вражеских солдат ^[63] . За эту победу Аврелиан получил два титула — «Дакский Величайший» и «Готский Величайший» ^[36] .

Затем Аврелиан приказал перевести все оставшиеся войска и население из Дакии за Дунай . У него был выбор: вернуть провинцию полностью и восстановить систему обороны времён Траяна, либо покинуть область и установить границу по Дунаю ^[64] . Он решил отказаться от провинции Дакия , так как она слишком часто подвергалась нападениям варваров из-за небольшого количества римских гарнизонов (часть которых была выведена при Галлиене ^[65] ) и дорого обходилась казне ^[66] . Поэтому Аврелиан благоразумно отодвинул границу империи к реке и переселил жителей (потомков римских переселенцев и романизованных урождённых жителей ^[67] ) на правый берег Дуная, где в восточной части Верхней и Нижней Мёзии , Фракии и древней Дардании учредил две новых провинции, названные (в честь Дакии) Дакией Прибрежной и Дакией Внутренней , а также основал новый монетный двор в Сердике ^[65] . Однако не все жители согласились уехать с насиженных мест ^[64] . Новая провинция представляла важность для авторитета Аврелиана: поскольку он отказался от римской территории, он желал создать «новую Дакию» взамен потерянных провинций ^[4] .

Таким образом, Дакия была оставлена римлянами спустя 170 лет после её завоевания Траяном . Уход римлян из Дакии, с одной стороны, породил новую напряжённость в отношениях между готами и гепидами на востоке и языгами на западе (в результате контакта между различными племенами), а с другой стороны, позволил римлянам укрепить границу в среднем и нижнем течении Дуная посредством вывода двух легионов ( V Македонского и XIII Парного , переведённых в Эск и Ратиарий) и большого количества вспомогательных подразделений, в общей сложности более сорока пяти тысяч солдат ^[68] .

Первая война с Пальмирским царством

В 271 году Аврелиан обратился к проблеме потерянных восточных провинций, объединившихся в так называемое Пальмирское царство, которым правила царица Зенобия . Вначале она признавала Аврелиана императором, но потом решила окончательно освободиться от римской власти и объявила своего сына Вабаллата царём и императором Рима ( лат. rex et imperator ) ^[69] . Сначала Аврелиан поручил будущему императору Пробу отвоевание Египта ^[70] . К осени 271 года Проб успешно справился со своей задачей ^[71] . После этого император собрал 200-тысячную армию, состоявшую из далматийцев, мавританской кавалерии и легионеров ^[65] . Специально для предстоящей кампании были созданы два легиона: I Иллирийский и IV Марсов ^[36] . Поход имел две цели: во-первых, возврат Малой Азии, Сирии и Антиохии; во-вторых, полная ликвидация угрозы со стороны Пальмирского царства ^[72] .

Аврелиан с войском пересёк Босфор весной 272 года и прибыл в Халкедон ^[73] . Вифиния и Галатия перешли к римлянам безо всякого сопротивления ^[74] . Но когда Аврелиан подошёл к Тиане , жители закрыли перед ним ворота ^[75] . Император приказал начать осаду, сказав: «Собаки живой не оставлю в этом городе!» (подразумевая, что он перебьёт всех его жителей) ^[76] . Вскоре город был взят, однако Аврелиан отказался от замысла уничтожить его население ^[77] . По легенде, ему во сне привиделся философ Аполлоний Тианский , сказавший:

«Аврелиан, если ты хочешь победить, то тебе не следует помышлять об убийстве моих сограждан. Аврелиан, если ты хочешь быть императором, воздержись от пролития крови безвинных. Аврелиан, будь милостив, если ты хочешь жить» ^[78] .

В итоге, по рассказу « Истории Августов », когда город был взят и солдаты, помня слова императора, что он не оставит в нём живой собаки, стали требовать отдать им Тиану на разграбление, Аврелиан ответил: « Да, я объявил, что в этом городе не оставлю ни одной собаки: всех собак убивайте! » ^[79] . После захвата города армия остановилась там на отдых ^[80] . Затем Аврелиан перешёл в Киликию через Таврские горы , где все города сдались ему без боя ^[78] . Около Антиохии при Иммах состоялась первая битва между римлянами и пальмирцами. Несмотря на превосходство пальмирской конницы, армия Аврелиана одержала победу над Зенобией, которая бежала с остатками своего воинства к Эмесе ^[77] . Оставшийся небольшой гарнизон в Антиохии римляне быстро разгромили ^[81] . Всех жителей города Аврелиан помиловал ^[82] . После взятия Антиохии в походе наступил непродолжительный перерыв. Дождавшись подкреплений из Малой Азии, Аврелиан снова двинулся в путь ^[83] . У Эмесы состоялась новая битва, окончившаяся победой римлян ^[83] . Зенобия бежала со всей своей армией в Пальмиру , а жители Эмесы открыли римлянам ворота ^[84] . После завоевания Сирии Аврелиан направился к Пальмире, предварительно заключив союз с некоторыми пограничными племенами, которые обещали предоставить римской армии провизию и воду ^[84] . Когда армия достигла ворот Пальмиры, римляне сразу начали осаду города. Аврелиан предлагал Зенобии заключить с ним мир, однако она считала, что римляне не сумеют взять Пальмиру, так как у её защитников было достаточно продовольствия, чтобы удержать город ^[84] .

По мере продолжения осады моральное состояние пальмирцев ухудшалось. Серьёзный удар им был нанесён, когда Армения перешла на сторону римлян ^[85] . Единственным государством, у которого можно было просить помощи, оставался Сасанидский Иран ^[42] . Согласно «Истории Августов», когда «побеждённая Зенобия пыталась бежать на верблюдах, которых называют беговыми, и направилась к персам, она была захвачена посланной вдогонку конницей и передана в руки Аврелиана» ^[86] . Это известие побудило защитников Пальмиры сдаться, и они сложили оружие перед легионами Рима ^[87] .

Зенобия и её военачальники были взяты в плен, однако наставник и советник царицы греческий философ-неоплатоник Дионисий Кассий Лонгин был казнён по приказу Аврелиана ^[88] . Зенобии же оставили жизнь из-за желания Аврелиана провести её в цепях на своём триумфе ^[89] . Император также приказал разобрать часть городской стены и конфисковал у жителей всё оружие ^[2] . На Востоке он оставил военачальника Марцеллина с армией ^[90] . В результате этой войны Аврелиан получил титулы «Реставратор Востока» и «Пальмирский Величайший» ^[91] .

Поражение карпов и вторая война с Пальмирским царством

Вскоре Аврелиан получил сведения, что теснимое готами племя карпов вторглось в пределы Римской империи, во Фракию, грабя находившиеся там поселения ^[38] . Несмотря на то, что год подходил к концу, император решил усмирить карпов. Об экспедиции ничего не известно, кроме того, что она была успешной ^[92] . После победы Аврелиан поселил часть карпов на римской территории ^[93] , а именно — в Нижней Мёзии, Фракии и особенно Родопах ^[94] .

По окончании этой кампании он получил известие о том, что жители Пальмиры восстали и перебили римский гарнизон, провозгласив императором некоего Антиоха, родственника Зенобии ^[95] . Аврелиан немедленно собрал войско и быстро двинулся обратно в Пальмиру, куда он прибыл весной 273 года ^[96] . Пальмирцы, не ожидавшие нападения, потерпели поражение, в результате чего город был разрушен до основания ^[36] . Удивительно, но узурпатор Антиох не был казнён, так как Аврелиан, вероятно, счёл его слишком молодым и приказал отправить его в изгнание ^[97] . Затем император подавил восстание некоего Фирма и в нескольких битвах разбил конницу персов , которая шла на помощь Зенобии ^[35] . При осаде Александрии в 272—273 годах были сожжены Александрийская библиотека и Мусейон ^[35] .

Завоевание Галльской империи

В 274 году Аврелиан вернулся в Рим, где получил второе консульство на текущий год ^[36] . Потом он обратил внимание на мятежные западные провинции , где правил галльский император Тетрик I с аквитанскими легионами, взявший в соправители своего сына, Тетрика II ^[98] . Численность войск Аврелиана сильно сократилась из-за двух восточных кампаний, поэтому возможно, что галльские легионы численно превосходили его войско ^[99] . Население Галлии стало переходить на сторону римского императора, видя, что их правительство не могло остановить вторжения германских племён и подавить внутренние беспорядки ^[99] .

Императорская армия перешла Альпы в начале лета 274 года и подступила к Нарбонской Галлии, которая вернулась в состав Римской империи при Клавдии II ^[100] , где продолжила, не встречая сопротивления, свой марш вдоль Роны на север. После захвата Лугдуна Аврелиан встретился с галльской армией в решительной и кровопролитной битве при Шалоне-на-Марне ^[101] . В итоге он одержал победу над Тетриком ^[101] . Согласно Аврелию Виктору , Тетрик написал письмо Аврелиану, в котором просил защиты. Он опасался за свою жизнь, поскольку его подчинённые из армейской среды неоднократно устраивали на него покушения. Во время битвы Тетрик сдался Аврелиану ^[102] .

Затем император разгромил узурпатора Фаустина , судьба которого неизвестна ^[101] . После победы Аврелиан остался в Галлии для инспектирования германских границ и к осени, найдя ситуацию стабильной, вернулся в Рим , чтобы отпраздновать долгожданный триумф. Вот как описывает «История Августов» этот триумф:

«Там было три царские колесницы; из них одна — колесница Одената, отделанная и разукрашенная серебром, золотом и драгоценными камнями; вторая — присланная персидским царем в подарок Аврелиану, такой же искусной работы; третья — которую сделала для себя Зенобия, надеясь вступить в ней в город Рим. И в этом она не ошиблась: вместе с ней она вошла в Рим побеждённая, в чужом триумфе. Была ещё одна колесница, запряжённая четырьмя оленями; она, говорят, принадлежала царю готов. На ней, как передают многие, Аврелиан въехал на Капитолий, чтобы там заклать оленей; говорят, что он захватил их вместе с колесницей и посвятил Юпитеру всеблагому и величайшему. Впереди шло двадцать слонов, двести различных прирученных диких животных из Ливии и Палестины <…>; четыре тигра, жирафы, лоси и другие подобные звери — в полном порядке; восемьсот пар гладиаторов, не считая пленников из варварских племен, — блеммии, аксомиты, арабы из Счастливой Аравии, индийцы, бактрийцы, иберы, сарацины, персы, — все с произведениями своих стран; готы, аланы, роксоланы, сарматы, франки, свевы, вандалы, германцы со связанными руками как пленники. Среди них шли впереди и уцелевшие знатнейшие лица города Пальмиры, и египтяне — в наказание за восстание» ^[103] .

Aurelian received the title "Restorer of the World" ^[36] . Around the same time, roads were repaired in Lugdun Gaul ^[104] . Tetrik, his son, and the former Tsarist Zenobia were held in Rome during a triumphal procession, but after that all three were released - the elderly Tetric was appointed proofreader of Lucania , and Zenobia was settled in Tibur, marrying her to a Roman senator ^[105] .

At the end of 274 or at the beginning of 275 there was a new attack by the Germans on the Danube border, and then on the province of Retsiya, which required new intervention by the emperor ^[106] .

Reforms

Religious Reforms

Aurelian was the first of the emperors to wear a diadem and officially titled "Lord and God" ( lat. Dominus et Deus ), becoming the forerunner of the Roman dominate . Aurelian introduced in Rome the cult of the Middle Eastern god “ Invincible Sun ” ( lat. Sol Invictus ), declaring this god supreme. This cult has long been gaining strength in the state and prevailed over other pagan beliefs ^[3] . The birthday of the “Invincible Sun” was celebrated on December 25 (later, the celebration of the Nativity of Christ from the Epiphany on January 6 according to the Julian calendar was postponed to the celebration of the solar cult on December ³⁾ . ^[3] This cult was close to the Baal cult introduced under Heliogabal . The center of the solar cult was a new temple, built in 271 in Rome and opened in 274 ^[26] . In honor of the “Invincible Sun” games were held every four years - Aurelian’s task was to give the inhabitants of the empire a common religion ^[4] . The first games took place in the year 274 ^[107] . A college of pontiffs of the Sun was created, which were recruited from senators ^[108] .

The most active worship of the “Invincible Sun” was in the Danube territories, the birthplace of Aurelian, and the emperor during the campaign against Zenobia visited Emesa and Palmyra, the former main ideological center of this cult. Now the “Invincible Sun” was at the head of the pantheon of gods, uniting in its person the main religious movements of the western and eastern parts of the empire into a single religion ^[3] . An unprecedented event occurred: the image of the Sun itself was placed on the obverse of bronze coins with the inscription “Lord of the Roman Empire” ( lat. SOL DOMINVS IMPERI ROMANI ), while the princeps was depicted by his priest. The cult was officially introduced in the legions, and its symbols appeared on military badges ^[3] .

According to Lactantius , Aurelian planned to organize a massive persecution of Christians and prepared, but did not have time to put his plan into practice due to death ^[109] . It is known that in 272 Aurelian at the request of Syrian Christians expelled Bishop Paul of Samosata from Antioch ^[110] . The persecution of Christians during the reign of Aurelian was limited. Among the martyrs of that era are the Byzantine martyrs of Lucillian, Claudius, Hypatius, Paul, Dionysius and Paul the Virgin; Martyrs Paul and Julian of Ptolemaida; martyrs Razumnik (Sinesius) of Rome, Filumen of Ankir ^[111] .

Coin Reform

Among the tasks set for himself by Aurelian, the reform of the monetary system was far from the last, since the ever worsening quality of the coin after the death of Gordian III led to an uncontrolled increase in prices ^[112] . Not the last place was occupied by fraud among officials ^[113] . Confidence in trade could be restored by minting a full silver coin of Antoninian , on which XX.I and KA dignity signs were placed (their value has not been established), and by a reasonable increase in the issue of full-weighted gold coins. But these measures seemed unfeasible due to the lack of precious metals ^[114] .

However, the new base silver coins, at least, had a more attractive appearance than the old miserable copper coins. Moreover, the face value was indicated on them, and they had a firmly set value in gold equivalent ^[115] . The percentage of silver in coins increased from 3.49 to 4.1% ^[116] . With the help of inscriptions on coins, Aurelian actively propagated his power: GENIUS ILLYRICI ( Russian genius Illyrika ), FIDES MILITUM ( Russian fidelity to the army ), CONCORDIA EXERCITUM ( Russian Consent of the Army ) ^[117] . The mass of gold coins was increased from about 5 g to 6.6 g, which corresponds to the era of the reign of Caracalla . Aurelian also established three new mints in Tripoli , Titsin and Lugdun. However, all these reforms did not significantly improve the negative economic situation ^[118] .

Army Reform

Under Aurelian, the importance of the heavily armed cavalry ( cataphracts and klibanaris ) increased in the armed forces of the empire ^[119] . This is due to the fact that the emperor had to wage war with the Persians and Palmyrians , in whose armies this type of army had an advantage ^[119] ; the Romans borrowed from their opponents many elements of tactics and weapons of heavy cavalry ^[119] . Aurelian continued to accept barbarians in the army ^[120] . According to A. Alfeld, Aurelian for the first time in the history of the Roman army created auxiliary units from captured vandals , youtungs, Alemanns as part of regular troops ^[121] . They were purely barbarian formations with the badges adopted by the Germans, emblems on shields, uniforms ^[121] .

X. Parker suggests that Aurelian, continuing the work of Gallien, increased the number of cavalry in the Legion, then completely separated the legion cavalry from the infantry and created from it independent tactical units called "promoti" ^[122] . Under Aurelian, two new legions were created: Legio I Illyricorum and Legio IV Martia ^[36] . In the East, he formed a new army, leaving several cavalry units there and two new legions recruited from the Illyrians ^[123] .

Other Reforms

Aurelian also resumed free distribution of bread, meat, wine to all those in need ^[124] , and allowed growers to sell their products duty free to alleviate their economic problems ^[125] . In addition, the emperor tried to eradicate corruption among senators ^[126] . It is known that the emperor intended to give prisoners land for cultivation in Etruria ^[127] . Aurelian also distributed money to the inhabitants of Rome - 500 denarius per person ^[128] . Aurelian also banned fiscal complaints and denunciations of quadruplators (scammers who received a fourth of the property confiscated from people accused of denouncing) and fought against the abuse of money-lenders and governors in the provinces ^[129] .

Relations with the Senate and Army

Senate

From the very beginning of Aurelian's reign, relations between him and the Senate were tense ^[130] . After the revolt of Felicissim, the Roman Senate even became afraid of Aurelian ^[131] . Even if Aurelian, according to H. Parker, consulted with the Senate on the construction of a wall around Rome and the implementation of monetary reform, it should be recognized that the role of the Senate in government was significantly reduced ^[132] . As R. Scherzl noted, under Aurelian, the senate no longer had anything to do with monetary affairs: the emperor deprived the senate of the right to issue even copper coins ^[133] . Now the release of coins from all metals has become the emperor’s monopoly ^[133] . I.V. Netushil believes that Aurelian destroyed the last remnant of the former diarchy, consisting in the letters S.S. - Senatus consulto ( Rus. Decree of the Senate ) - on a copper coin ^[134] . By the same token, the Senate was deprived of the right to direct control over the Senate branch of the state treasury - the eraria: expenses from it could now be incurred only with the permission of the imperial prefects of the eraria ^[135] .

Army

Among the legionnaires Aurelian had great authority, but he was strict towards them and demanded high discipline from them (in this regard, Eutropius writes that Aurelian “strictly maintained discipline in the army and beat off self-will from many” ^[136] ). The emperor sought to be independent of the army. After defeating the Palmyrians, Aurelian essentially re-created the Roman army in the eastern part of the empire ^[135] . In this regard, on coins issued in the years 274-275 in Kizik , he is called the "restorer of the army" ( lat. RESTITUTOR EXERCITI ) ^[135] .

The History of Augustus reports that Aurelian's parents had a "modest title" ^[28] . Nothing more is known about them. The following are the names of Aurelian's relatives who have come down to our time:

• Ulpius Krinit is Aurelian’s adoptive father, allegedly leading his own family from Emperor Trajan ^[137] . Although the biography of Krinit was clearly invented by one of the authors of The History of Augustus, such a person could still exist ^[138] . Father of Ulpia Severina , wife of Aurelian ^[139] .
• Ulpia Severin is Aurelian's wife, daughter of Ulpia Krinita ^[140] . She bore the emperor a daughter ^[4] . It is likely that after the death of her husband within a month or two of Severin, relying on the tremendous authority of Aurelian, she ruled the state and, possibly, influenced the choice of the emperor Tacitus ^[141] .
• Aurelian is the grandson of the emperor, the son of his daughter. He was proconsul of Cilicia, at the time of writing the biography of his grandfather lived in Sicily ^[142] . Known only from the History of Augustus.

In 275, Aurelian decided to start a war with the Persians and return Mesopotamia to the rule of Rome. In Persia at this time there was a frequent change of rulers, and therefore it was hoped that the war with the Persians would not be difficult ^[3] . Gathering in Illyric "rather large than huge army" , Aurelian moved to the East ^[143] . But on the way, not far from the Thracian city of Kenofrurrium (modern Chorlu ), located between Perinf and Byzantium , he was killed as a result of a conspiracy in late summer and early autumn ^{[K 2]} .

EM Staerman associated the death of Aurelian with the deepening social contradictions in the Roman army ^[145] . In her opinion, the emperor, giving the commanding staff of the army a large salary in money, kind and vast lands, facilitated the rapprochement of army officers with provincial land magnates ^[145] . Ordinary soldiers were against concessions to the senatorial class, and Aurelian fell victim to their opposition ^[145] .

However, evidence of narrative ^{[ what? ]} sources show that the assassination of the emperor is a direct consequence of his excessive severity ^[146] . The organizer of the murder was Aurelian's secretary of secret papers, the imperial freedman Mnestei ^{[K 3]} . He committed a seemingly insignificant act - misconduct on official part and was afraid of severe punishment of the emperor ^[148] . His fears led to disastrous consequences. Then, skillfully faking Aurelian’s handwriting, he

“... compiled a list of names in which they were mixed with the names of those whom Aurelian was really angry with, as well as the names of those about whom he did not think anything bad, and added his own name to them so that the concern he showed would arouse more confidence. He read the list to individuals whose names appear on it, adding that Aurelian decided to kill them all, and that they, if they are real men, should take care of their own lives. Fear took possession of those who deserved punishment, and grief - those who did not have guilt, since Aurelian did not seem to feel appreciation for all the blessings and services rendered to him, and they, on the way, in the above-mentioned place, suddenly attacked the sovereign and killed him ... " ^[149]

The Thracian named Mukapor ^[3] killed the emperor. First he ^{[ who? ]} was betrayed by the curse of memory (apparently by the senate), but then deified ^[150] . After the death of Aurelian, the period of “interregnum” began, when Ulpia Severin probably ruled the country, influencing the choice of Tacitus as her successor ^[141] . The murderers of Aurelianus were executed under Tacitus and Proba ^{[151] [152]} .

The reign of Aurelian lasted five years, which for that time was quite a long period. His main achievement was the restoration of the unity of the Roman Empire ^[31] . The author of Aurelian’s biography in The History of Augustus writes that Aurelian’s time was very happy. The Roman people loved him, and the Senate, moreover, was afraid ^[153] . Aurelian was a supporter of strict discipline in the army and an opponent of corruption among officials ^[31] . His reforms contributed to the stabilization of the situation in the state ^[144] . Aurelian was an excellent general ^[154] .

During the five years of the reign, Aurelian was able to achieve great success in the fight against internal and external enemies. Various coins were minted in his reign at the mints in Rome , Mediolan (from here the mint was transferred to Titsin), Lugdun (after the conquest of the Gallic empire), Kizika, Antioch (recaptured from Palmyra), Sicia and Serdica. In Serdika , where the mint was located, founded for Dacian settlers, the inscriptions on some coins called the emperor “born of a god and ruler” ( lat. DEO ET DOMINO NATO ), which was a clear exaggeration. Sometimes he came across some titles like “restorer of the army”, “liberator” and “peacemaker”. The Danube units of the Roman army, which constituted the core of Aurelian’s troops, were also praised ^[31] .

In “Extracts on the Morals and Life of the Roman Emperors,” his achievements are compared with those of Alexander the Great and Caesar ^[46] .

Sources

1. Аврелий Виктор. Аврелиан // О цезарях .
2. Евтропий. Бревиарий от основания Города .
3. Зосим. Новая История . — Кн. I.
4. Лактанций. О смертях гонителей . — Ч. VI.
5. Псевдо-Аврелий Виктор. Извлечения о жизни и нравах римских императоров.
6. Флавий Вописк Сиракузянин. Божественный Аврелиан ; Галлиен // История Августов. — М. : Наука, 1992.

Literature

1. Сергеев, И. Римская Империя в III веке нашей эры . — Х. , 1999.
2. Циркин, Ю. Б. Император Тацит // Studia historica. — М. , 2009. — Т. IX.
3. Barbieri, G. L'albo senatorio da Settimio Severo a Carino (193–285). — Roma, 1952.
4. Homo, L. Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Aurélien . — P. , 1904.
5. Jones AHM L. Domitius Aurelianus 6 // Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire / AHM Jones , JR Martindale, J. Morris. - Cambridge University Press , 1971. - Vol. I: AD 260–395. — P. 129. — ISBN 0-521-07233-6 [2001 reprint].
6. Kienast, D. Die Münzreform Aurelians.
7. Kienast, D. Römische Kaisertabelle. Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie. — Darmstadt, 1996.
8. Levi, MA L'impero Romano dalla battaglia di Azio alia morte di Theodosio I. — Torino, 1967.
9. Parker, HMD A History of the Roman World. — 3rd ed. — Methuen & Co, 1963.
10. Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. — Routledge, 2001.
11. Stoneman, R. Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt against Rome. — University of Michigan Press, 1995. — 280 p. — ISBN 0472083155 .
12. Watson, A. Aurelian and the Third Century. — Routledge, 1999.
13. White, JF Restorer of the World: The Roman Emperor Aurelian. — Tempus Publishing, 2005.

• Грант, М. Аврелиан (неопр.) . Римские императоры (1998). Дата обращения 20 сентября 2013. Архивировано 27 августа 2011 года.
• Körner, C. Aurelian (270—275) (англ.) . An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors (2001). Дата обращения 20 сентября 2013. Архивировано 27 августа 2011 года.
• Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (German) ( Einleitung , Herkunft ). Personen Kaiser. Date of treatment September 20, 2013. Archived on August 27, 2011.
• Coins of Imperial Roman Aurelian (Eng.) . Wildwinds. - Coins of Aurelian. Date of appeal September 20, 2013.