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Integers are an extension of the set of natural numbers [1] , obtained by adding zero and negative numbers [2] to it . The need to consider integers is dictated by the inability in the general case to subtract another from one natural number - you can subtract only a smaller number from a larger one. The introduction of zero and negative numbers makes subtraction the same full-fledged operation as addition [3] .

A real number is an integer if its decimal representation does not contain a fractional part (but may contain a sign). Examples of real numbers:
- Numbers 142857; 0; β273 are integers.
- Numbers 5Β½; 9.75 are not integers.
The set of integers is denoted by (from German. Zahlen - "numbers" [4] ). The study of the properties of integers deals with a branch of mathematics called number theory .
Positive and negative numbers
According to its construction, the set of integers consists of three parts:
- Natural numbers (or, which is the same, integers are positive). They arise naturally when counting (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ...) [5] .
- Zero is the number indicated by
. Its defining property:
for any number
.
- Negative integers .

Negative numbers when writing are marked with a minus sign in front: For every integer
there is a unique number opposite to it, denoted by
and possessing the property that
If a
positively, then the opposite is negative, and vice versa. Zero is the opposite of itself [2] .
The absolute value of an integer this number is called with a discarded sign [6] . Designation:
- Examples:
Algebraic properties
Three basic arithmetic operations are defined in a set of integers: addition , inverse to addition, subtraction and multiplication . There is also an important operation specific to natural and integer numbers: division with the remainder . Finally, for integers, an order is defined that allows you to compare numbers with each other.
Addition and Subtraction
The following table illustrates the basic properties of addition [7] for any integers :
Property | Algebraic Record |
---|---|
Commutativity ( Reliability ) | |
Associativity ( combinability ) | |
Zero property | |
Property of the opposite element |
When adding and subtracting integers, the following rules of signs [7] [8] are fulfilled, which should be taken into account when opening brackets:
The rules for adding integers [9] .
- When adding integers with the same signs, we must add their absolute values ββand assign the sign of the terms to it. Example; .
- When adding integers with different signs, we must compare their absolute values, subtract the smaller from the larger and assign the sign of the term with the absolute value greater to the result. Examples: .
- Subtraction for integers it is always feasible, and the result can be found as Example: .
- Geometrically, addition can be visualized as a shift of a number along the numerical axis (see the figure at the beginning of the article), and adding a positive number causes a shift to the right and a negative one to the left. For example, for a number addition to it means its shift to the right by 4 units; clearly what turns out . Similarly by shifting 4 units to the left, we get as a result .
- Subtraction can be visualized similarly, but in this case, on the contrary, subtracting a positive number causes a shift to the left, and a negative number - to the right. For example, biases 7 units to the number , but shifts it to the right to the number .
Multiplication and
Multiplication of numbers further designated or (only in case of lettering) simply . The following table illustrates the basic properties of multiplication [7] for any integers :
Property | Algebraic Record |
---|---|
Commutativity ( Reliability ) | |
Associativity ( combinability ) | |
Unit Property | |
Zero property | |
The distributivity of the multiplication relative to addition |
When multiplying integers, the rules of signs [7] [8] are fulfilled, which should be taken into account when opening brackets:
Corollary : the product of numbers with the same signs is positive, with different ones it is negative.
The raising to a natural power of integers is defined in the same way as for natural numbers:
The properties of raising to the power of integers are also the same as that of natural numbers:
In addition to this definition, a zero degree agreement has been adopted: for any whole The basis for such an agreement is the desire to maintain the above properties for a zero exponent: whence it is clear that
Ordering
Is a linearly ordered set . The order in it is given by the relations:
An integer is positive if it is greater than zero, negative if it is less than zero. Positive integers are natural numbers and only they. Negative numbers are numbers opposite to positive ones. Zero is neither positive nor negative. Any negative number is less than any positive [2] .
For any integers the following relations are valid [10] .
- If a then for any will be .
- If a and then .
- If a and then .
- If a and then .
To compare two negative numbers, there is a rule: the larger is the number whose absolute value is less [10] . For example, .
Divisibility
Division with the remainder
The division operation, generally speaking, is not defined on a set of integers. For example, cannot be divided on - there is no integer multiplied by will give . But you can define the so-called division with the remainder [11] :
- For any integers (Where ) there is a single set of integers such that where
Here a is the dividend , b is the divisor , q is the (incomplete) quotient, r is the remainder of the division (always non-negative). If the remainder is zero, they say that division is performed entirely [11] .
- Examples
- When dividing with the remainder of a positive number on we get an incomplete quotient and the remainder . Verification:
- When dividing with the remainder of a negative number on we get an incomplete quotient and the remainder . Verification:
- When dividing with the remainder of the number on we get the quotient and the remainder , that is, division is performed entirely. To quickly find out if a given number is divisible by (small) number , there are signs of divisibility .
The theory of comparisons and the Euclidean algorithm are based on the operation of division with the remainder.
Division completely. Dividers
As defined above, the number divides (completely) by the number if there is an integer such that . Symbolic notation: . There are several equivalent verbal formulations of the indicated divisibility [12] :
- divided (wholly) into .
- is a divider (or: divides )
- multiple .
Every integer not equal to zero or has 4 trivial divisors: . If there are no other divisors, the number is called prime [13] .
The notion of the greatest common divisor of two integers, the decomposition of an integer into prime factors, and the basic arithmetic theorem for integers practically coincide (with the possible consideration of the sign) with analogues of these concepts for natural numbers [14] .
Integers and real numbers
There are practical tasks in which it is necessary to round the material value to the whole, that is, replace it with the nearest (in one direction or another) whole. Since rounding can be done in different ways, to clarify, you can use the " Iverson symbols " [15] :
- - closest to the whole down (function "floor", English floor , or "the whole part "). Gauss notation is also traditionally used. or Legendre designation .
- - closest to whole for the greater side (function "ceiling", English ceiling ).
Depending on the specifics of the problem statement, other methods may also be encountered: round to the nearest integer or cut off the fractional part (the last option for negative differs from the βinteger partβ function).
Another class of problems connecting integers and real numbers is the approximation of a real number by the ratio of integers, that is, a rational number . It is proved that any real number can be approximated with any desired accuracy by rational, the best tool for such an approximation is continuous (continued) fractions [16] .
History
The development of mathematics began with practical counting skills (one, two, three, four ...), therefore natural numbers arose even in the prehistoric period as idealization of a finite set of homogeneous, stable and indivisible objects (people, sheep, days, etc.). Addition appeared as a mathematical model of such important events as the union of several sets (herds, bags, etc.) into one, and subtraction reflected, on the contrary, the separation of part of the set. Multiplication for natural numbers appeared as a package addition, so to speak: 3 Γ 4 meant the sum β 3 times 4β, that is 4 + 4 + 4 . Properties and the relationship of operations were discovered gradually [17] [18] .
The initial step towards the expansion of natural numbers was the appearance of zero; apparently the first to use this symbol was Indian mathematicians. At first, zero was used not as a number, but as a figure in the positional record of numbers, then it gradually began to be recognized as a full-fledged number, indicating the absence of anything (for example, the complete ruin of a merchant) [19] .
Negative numbers were first used in ancient China and in India, where they were considered as a mathematical image of "debt." Ancient Egypt , Babylon and Ancient Greece did not use negative numbers, and if negative roots of the equations were obtained (when subtracting), they were rejected as impossible. The exception was Diophantus , who in the III century already knew the βrule of signsβ and knew how to multiply negative numbers. However, he considered them only as an intermediate stage, useful for calculating the final, positive result. The usefulness and legitimacy of negative numbers was affirmed gradually. The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta (VII century) already considered them on a par with positive ones [20] .
In Europe, recognition came a thousand years later, and even then for a long time negative numbers were called "false", "imaginary" or "absurd". The first description of them in European literature appeared in Leonard Pisansky 's Book of the Abacus (1202), which also interpreted negative numbers as debt. Bombelli and Girard in their writings considered negative numbers quite acceptable and useful, in particular, to indicate a lack of something. Negative numbers were freely used by Nicolas SchΓΌke (1484) and Michael Stiefel (1544) [20] .
In the XVII century, with the advent of analytical geometry , negative numbers received a clear geometric representation on the numerical axis . From this moment comes their full equality. The legalization of negative numbers has led to numerous conveniences - for example, the transfer of the terms of an equation to another part of it became possible regardless of the sign of this term (earlier, say, the equation and were considered fundamentally different) [21] .
Nevertheless, the theory of negative numbers has long been in its infancy. Pascal , for example, believed that , since "nothing can be less than nothing" [22] . The odd proportion was animatedly discussed. - in it, the first term on the left is greater than the second, and on the right - on the contrary, and it turns out that more is equal to less (β Arno paradoxβ). Wallis believed that negative numbers are less than zero, but at the same time more than infinity [23] . It was also unclear what the meaning of the multiplication of negative numbers was, and why the product of negative numbers was positive; heated discussions took place on this subject. An echo of those times is the fact that in modern arithmetic the subtraction operation and the sign of negative numbers are denoted by the same symbol ( minus ), although algebraically these are completely different concepts. In 1831, Gauss considered it necessary to clarify that negative numbers basically have the same rights as positive ones, and the fact that they are not applicable to all things does not mean anything, because fractions also do not apply to all things (for example, they are not applicable to counting people) [24] .
A complete and completely rigorous theory of negative numbers was created only in the 19th century ( William Hamilton and Hermann Gunter Grassman ) [25] .
Application
In Applied Sciences
Integers are widely used in the study of objects that, by their nature or by the characteristics of the problem statement, are indivisible (for example, people, ships, buildings, sometimes days, etc.). Negative numbers can also be used in such models - say, when planning trade deals, you can indicate sales with positive numbers and purchases with negative numbers. An example from physics is quantum numbers , which play a fundamental role in the microworld; all of them are integer (or half-integer ) numbers with a sign [26] .
To solve the problems arising from this, special mathematical methods have been developed that take into account the specifics of the problems. In particular, the solution in integers of algebraic equations (of different degrees) is considered by the theory of β Diophantine equations β [27] . Integer optimization issues are studied by integer programming [28] .
In Computer Science
The integer type is often one of the main data types in programming languages . Integer data types are typically implemented as a fixed set of bits , one of which encodes the sign of a number, and the rest encodes binary digits. Modern computers have a rich set of instructions for arithmetic operations with integers [29] .
Place in General Algebra
- natural numbers
- whole numbers
- rational numbers
- real numbers
- irrational numbers
In terms of general algebra , with respect to addition and multiplication, it is an infinite commutative ring with unity, without zero divisors ( region of integrity ). The ring of integers is Euclidean (and therefore factorial ) and Noetherian , but it is not Artinian . If we expand this ring by adding all kinds of fractions to it (see the field of quotients ), we obtain a field of rational numbers ( ); any division is already possible in it, except division by zero [30] [31] .
Regarding the addition operation is an abelian group , and therefore also a cyclic group , since every nonzero element can be written as the final sum 1 + 1 + ... + 1 or (β1) + (β1) + ... + (β1) . Actually, is the only infinite cyclic addition group by virtue of the fact that any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to the group . Regarding Multiplication does not form a group, since division in a set of integers is, generally speaking, impossible [30] .
The set of integers with the usual order is an ordered ring , but it is not completely ordered , since, for example, there is no smallest among negative numbers. However, it can be made quite ordered by defining the non-standard relation βless than or equal toβ [32] , which we denote and define as follows:
- if either or or and
Then the order of the integers will be like this: In particular, will be the smallest negative number. with the new order will be a completely ordered set, but will no longer be an ordered ring, since this order is not consistent with the operations of the ring: for example, from adding 1 to the left and right, we get the inequality
ΠΡΠ±ΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ΄ΠΎΡΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ΅ ΠΊΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠΎ Ρ Π΅Π΄ΠΈΠ½ΠΈΡΠ΅ΠΉ ΠΈ Π±Π΅Π· Π΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΡΠ΅Π»Π΅ΠΉ Π½ΡΠ»Ρ ΡΠΎΠ΄Π΅ΡΠΆΠΈΡ ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΎ ΠΈ ΡΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΠΎ ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΎ ΠΏΠΎΠ΄ΠΊΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠΎ, ΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠΌΠΎΡΡΠ½ΠΎΠ΅ [33] .
ΠΠΎΠ³ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ
Π Π°ΡΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» Π΄ΠΎ ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ , ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΈ Π»ΡΠ±ΠΎΠ΅ Π΄ΡΡΠ³ΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠ°ΡΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π°Π»Π³Π΅Π±ΡΠ°ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠΉ ΡΡΡΡΠΊΡΡΡΡ, ΡΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΡ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ Π²ΠΎΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ², ΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎΠ²Π½ΡΠ΅ ΠΈΠ· ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΡ β ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΡΡ ΠΎΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠΈ Π½Π°Π΄ Π½ΠΎΠ²ΡΠΌ ΡΠΈΠΏΠΎΠΌ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» (Π½Π°ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Ρ, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΡΡ ΡΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΎΡΡΠΈΡΠ°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π»), ΠΊΠ°ΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ²ΠΎΠΉΡΡΠ²Π° ΠΎΠ½ΠΈ ΡΠΎΠ³Π΄Π° Π±ΡΠ΄ΡΡ ΠΈΠΌΠ΅ΡΡ ΠΈ (Π³Π»Π°Π²Π½ΡΠΉ Π²ΠΎΠΏΡΠΎΡ) Π΄ΠΎΠΏΡΡΡΠΈΠΌΠΎ Π»ΠΈ ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠ°ΡΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅, Π½Π΅ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ²Π΅Π΄ΡΡ Π»ΠΈ ΠΎΠ½ΠΎ ΠΊ Π½Π΅ΡΡΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΈΠΌΡΠΌ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΡΠΌ. ΠΠ»Ρ Π°Π½Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·Π° ΠΏΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠ±Π½ΡΡ Π²ΠΎΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ² Π½Π°Π΄ΠΎ ΡΡΠΎΡΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°ΡΡ Π½Π°Π±ΠΎΡ Π°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌ Π΄Π»Ρ ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π».
ΠΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌΠ°ΡΠΈΠΊΠ° ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π»
ΠΡΠΎΡΠ΅ Π²ΡΠ΅Π³ΠΎ ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΡΡ Π°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌΠ°ΡΠΈΠΊΡ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Π° ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» , Π΅ΡΠ»ΠΈ ΠΎΠΏΠΈΡΠ°ΡΡΡΡ Π½Π° ΡΠΆΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΡΡΡΠΎΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ΅ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» (ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΠΏΠΎΠ»Π°Π³Π°Π΅ΡΡΡ Π½Π΅ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΠ²ΡΠΌ, Π° ΡΠ²ΠΎΠΉΡΡΠ²Π° Π΅Π³ΠΎ β ΠΈΠ·Π²Π΅ΡΡΠ½ΡΠΌΠΈ). ΠΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎ, ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΠΌ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΌΠΈΠ½ΠΈΠΌΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΠ΅ ΠΊΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠΎ , ΡΠΎΠ΄Π΅ΡΠΆΠ°ΡΠ΅Π΅ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π». ΠΠΎΠ»Π΅Π΅ ΡΡΡΠΎΠ³ΠΎ, Π°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌΡ ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» ΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΡΡΡΠΈΠ΅ [34] [35] .
- Z1 : ΠΠ»Ρ Π²ΡΡΠΊΠΈΡ
ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ
ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½Π° ΠΈΡ
ΡΡΠΌΠΌΠ° .
- Z2 : Π‘Π»ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΊΠΎΠΌΠΌΡΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΠΎ : . ΠΠ»Ρ ΠΊΡΠ°ΡΠΊΠΎΡΡΠΈ ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΡΠΊΡ Β«Π΄Π»Ρ Π²ΡΡΠΊΠΈΡ Β» Π΄Π°Π»Π΅Π΅, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΠ»ΠΎ, ΠΎΠΏΡΡΠΊΠ°Π΅ΠΌ.
- Z3 : Π‘Π»ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π°ΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ°ΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΠΎ :
- Z4 : Π‘ΡΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΡΠ΅Ρ ΡΠ»Π΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Ρ 0 (Π½ΠΎΠ»Ρ) ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΎΠΉ, ΡΡΠΎ .
- Z5 : ΠΠ»Ρ Π²ΡΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ΅Π»ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠΈΡΠ»Π° ΡΡΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΡΠ΅Ρ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠ½ΡΠΉ Π΅ΠΌΡ ΡΠ»Π΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Ρ ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΎΠΉ, ΡΡΠΎ
- Z6 : ΠΠ»Ρ Π²ΡΡΠΊΠΈΡ ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½ΠΎ ΠΈΡ ΠΏΡΠΎΠΈΠ·Π²Π΅Π΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ .
- Z7 : Π£ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ Π°ΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ°ΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΠΎ :
- Z8 : Π£ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ²ΡΠ·Π°Π½ΠΎ ΡΠΎ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ΠΌ ΡΠ°ΡΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΡΠ΅Π»ΡΠ½ΡΠΌΠΈ (Π΄ΠΈΡΡΡΠΈΠ±ΡΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΡΠΌΠΈ) Π·Π°ΠΊΠΎΠ½Π°ΠΌΠΈ:
- Z9 : ΠΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» ΡΠΎΠ΄Π΅ΡΠΆΠΈΡ ΠΏΠΎΠ΄ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ, ΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠΌΠΎΡΡΠ½ΠΎΠ΅ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Ρ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» . ΠΠ»Ρ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΡΠΎΡΡ Π΄Π°Π»Π΅Π΅ ΡΡΠΎ ΠΏΠΎΠ΄ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ ΠΎΠ±ΠΎΠ·Π½Π°ΡΠ°Π΅ΡΡΡ ΡΠΎΠΉ ΠΆΠ΅ Π±ΡΠΊΠ²ΠΎΠΉ .
- Z10 ( Π°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌΠ° ΠΌΠΈΠ½ΠΈΠΌΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΡΡΠΈ ): ΠΡΡΡΡ β ΠΏΠΎΠ΄ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ , Π²ΠΊΠ»ΡΡΠ°ΡΡΠ΅Π΅ ΠΈ ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΎΠ΅, ΡΡΠΎ ΠΎΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ°ΡΠΈΡ Π²ΡΡΠΈΡΠ°Π½ΠΈΡ Π½Π΅ Π²ΡΠ²ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΡ Π·Π° ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»Ρ . Then ΡΠΎΠ²ΠΏΠ°Π΄Π°Π΅Ρ ΡΠΎ Π²ΡΠ΅ΠΌ .
- Z2 : Π‘Π»ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΊΠΎΠΌΠΌΡΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΠΎ : . ΠΠ»Ρ ΠΊΡΠ°ΡΠΊΠΎΡΡΠΈ ΠΎΠ³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΡΠΊΡ Β«Π΄Π»Ρ Π²ΡΡΠΊΠΈΡ Β» Π΄Π°Π»Π΅Π΅, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΠ»ΠΎ, ΠΎΠΏΡΡΠΊΠ°Π΅ΠΌ.
ΠΠ· ΡΡΠΈΡ Π°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌ Π²ΡΡΠ΅ΠΊΠ°ΡΡ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΡΡΠ²ΠΈΡ Π²ΡΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ²ΠΎΠΉΡΡΠ²Π° ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π», Π² ΡΠΎΠΌ ΡΠΈΡΠ»Π΅ ΠΊΠΎΠΌΠΌΡΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠ²Π½ΠΎΡΡΡ ΡΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡ, ΡΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ΄ΠΎΡΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡΡ, ΠΏΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΠ»Π° Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ Π½Π°ΡΠ΅Π»ΠΎ ΠΈ Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ Ρ ΠΎΡΡΠ°ΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ [36] . ΠΠΎΠΊΠ°ΠΆΠ΅ΠΌ, Π½Π°ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Ρ, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ Π²Π²ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΡΡΡ ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ΄ΠΎΠΊ ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π». ΠΡΠ΄Π΅ΠΌ Π³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΡΠΈΡΡ, ΡΡΠΎ , Π΅ΡΠ»ΠΈ Π΅ΡΡΡ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠΈΡΠ»ΠΎ. ΠΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌΡ ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ΄ΠΊΠ° Π»Π΅Π³ΠΊΠΎ ΠΏΡΠΎΠ²Π΅ΡΡΡΡΡΡ. ΠΠ· ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ ΡΡΠ°Π·Ρ ΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΡΠ΅Ρ, ΡΡΠΎ Π²ΡΠ΅ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΠ΅ ΡΠΈΡΠ»Π° Π±ΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠ΅ Π½ΡΠ»Ρ ( ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠΈΡΠ΅Π»ΡΠ½Ρ ), Π° Π²ΡΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠ½ΡΠ΅ ΠΈΠΌ ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΡΡΠ΅ Π½ΡΠ»Ρ ( ΠΎΡΡΠΈΡΠ°ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΠ½Ρ ). ΠΠ»Ρ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» Π½ΠΎΠ²ΡΠΉ ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ΄ΠΎΠΊ ΡΠΎΠ²ΠΏΠ°Π΄Π°Π΅Ρ ΡΠΎ ΡΡΠ°ΡΡΠΌ [37] .
ΠΡΠΈΠ²Π΅Π΄ΡΠ½Π½Π°Ρ Π°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌΠ°ΡΠΈΠΊΠ° ΡΠ΅Π»ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» ΠΊΠ°ΡΠ΅Π³ΠΎΡΠΈΡΠ½Π° , ΡΠΎ Π΅ΡΡΡ Π»ΡΠ±ΡΠ΅ Π΅Ρ ΠΌΠΎΠ΄Π΅Π»ΠΈ ΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠΌΠΎΡΡΠ½Ρ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΊΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠ° [38] .
ΠΠ΅ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΡΡΡ
Π‘ΡΠ°Π½Π΄Π°ΡΡΠ½ΡΠΉ ΡΠΏΠΎΡΠΎΠ± Π΄ΠΎΠΊΠ°Π·Π°ΡΡ Π½Π΅ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΡΡΡ Π½ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠΉ ΡΡΡΡΠΊΡΡΡΡ β ΡΠΌΠΎΠ΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°ΡΡ ( ΠΈΠ½ΡΠ΅ΡΠΏΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°ΡΡ ) Π΅Ρ Π°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌΡ Ρ ΠΏΠΎΠΌΠΎΡΡΡ ΠΎΠ±ΡΠ΅ΠΊΡΠΎΠ² Π΄ΡΡΠ³ΠΎΠΉ ΡΡΡΡΠΊΡΡΡΡ, ΡΡΡ Π½Π΅ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΠ²ΠΎΡΡΡ ΡΠΎΠΌΠ½Π΅Π½ΠΈΠΉ Π½Π΅ Π²ΡΠ·ΡΠ²Π°Π΅Ρ. Π Π½Π°ΡΠ΅ΠΌ ΡΠ»ΡΡΠ°Π΅ ΠΌΡ Π΄ΠΎΠ»ΠΆΠ½Ρ ΡΠ΅Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠ²Π°ΡΡ ΡΡΠΈ Π°ΠΊΡΠΈΠΎΠΌΡ Π½Π° Π±Π°Π·Π΅ ΠΏΠ°Ρ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» [39] .
Π Π°ΡΡΠΌΠΎΡΡΠΈΠΌ Π²ΡΠ΅Π²ΠΎΠ·ΠΌΠΎΠΆΠ½ΡΠ΅ ΡΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ΄ΠΎΡΠ΅Π½Π½ΡΠ΅ ΠΏΠ°ΡΡ Π½Π°ΡΡΡΠ°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π» . Π§ΡΠΎΠ±Ρ ΡΠΌΡΡΠ» Π΄Π°Π»ΡΠ½Π΅ΠΉΡΠΈΡ ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΠΉ ΡΡΠ°Π» ΠΏΠΎΠ½ΡΡΠ΅Π½, ΡΡΠ°Π·Ρ ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ½ΠΈΠΌ, ΡΡΠΎ ΠΌΡ Π½Π°ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½Ρ Π² Π΄Π°Π»ΡΠ½Π΅ΠΉΡΠ΅ΠΌ ΠΊΠ°ΠΆΠ΄ΡΡ ΡΠ°ΠΊΡΡ ΠΏΠ°ΡΡ ΡΠ°ΡΡΠΌΠ°ΡΡΠΈΠ²Π°ΡΡ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΡΠ΅Π»ΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠΈΡΠ»ΠΎ Π½Π°ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Ρ, ΠΏΠ°ΡΡ or Π±ΡΠ΄ΡΡ ΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠ±ΡΠ°ΠΆΠ°ΡΡ Π΅Π΄ΠΈΠ½ΠΈΡΡ, Π° ΠΏΠ°ΡΡ or Π±ΡΠ΄ΡΡ ΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠ±ΡΠ°ΠΆΠ°ΡΡ
ΠΠ°Π»Π΅Π΅ ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΠΌ [40] :
- Couples and ΡΡΠΈΡΠ°ΡΡΡΡ ΡΠ°Π²Π½ΡΠΌΠΈ, Π΅ΡΠ»ΠΈ . ΠΡΠΎ ΡΠ²ΡΠ·Π°Π½ΠΎ Ρ ΡΠ΅ΠΌ, ΡΡΠΎ, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΠΎΠΊΠ°Π·Π°Π½ΠΎ Π² ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅ΡΠ°Ρ , Π»ΡΠ±ΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠ΅Π»ΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠΈΡΠ»ΠΎ ΠΌΠΎΠΆΠ½ΠΎ ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΡΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΡΡ Π±Π΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ½Π΅ΡΠ½ΡΠΌ ΡΠΈΡΠ»ΠΎΠΌ ΠΏΠ°Ρ.
- Π‘Π»ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ : ΡΡΠΌΠΌΠ° ΠΏΠ°Ρ and ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΠ°ΡΠ° .
- Π£ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠΆΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ : ΠΏΡΠΎΠΈΠ·Π²Π΅Π΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΠ°Ρ and ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΏΠ°ΡΠ° .
It is easy to verify that the results of addition and multiplication do not change if we replace any pair by its equal, that is, a new pair-result will be equal to the previous one (in the sense of Definition 1, the equality). It is also easy to verify that the described structure of pairs satisfies the entire list of axioms of integers. Positive numbers are modeled in pairs. , in which , zero represent pairs of the form , and couples with correspond to negative numbers [40] .
This model allows us to clarify how their properties uniquely follow from the axioms of integers; We show this for the "rule of signs." For example, multiplying two βnegative numbersβ and , which , by definition we get a pair . Difference is equal to , this number is positive, therefore the para-product represents a positive integer, therefore, the product of negative numbers is positive. Any other rule (say, βthe product of negative numbers is negativeβ) would make the theory of integers inconsistent.
The described model proves that the reduced axiomatics of integers is consistent. Because if there was a contradiction in it, it would mean a contradiction in the arithmetic of natural numbers, which is basic for this model, which we previously assumed to be consistent [39] .
Cardinality
The set of integers is infinite. Although natural numbers are only part of the set of integers, integers are the same as natural numbers, in the sense that the power of the set of integers is the same as the set of natural numbers - they are both countable [41] .
Variations and generalizations
Some algebraic structures are similar in their properties to the ring of integers . Among them:
- Gaussian integers . These are complex numbers. where - whole numbers. For Gaussian numbers, as well as for ordinary integers, one can define the concepts of divisors , prime and modulo comparisons . An analogue of the basic theorem of arithmetic is valid [42] .
- Eisenstein integers [43] .
Notes
- β Here we have in mind the oldest understanding of natural numbers with the first unit element:
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