Psychology

The subject of psychology is understood differently in the course of history and from the perspective of various areas of psychology. For modern psychology, the search for the subject of psychology is still relevant. ^[3]

• Soul (all researchers before the beginning of the XVIII century)
• Phenomena of consciousness (English empirical associationist psychology - D. Gartley , John Stuart Mill , Alexander Ben , Herbert Spencer )
• Direct experience of the subject ( structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt )
• Adaptability ( functionalism - William James )
• The origin of mental activities ( psychophysiology - Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov )
• Behavior ( Behaviorism - John Watson )
• Unconscious ( deep psychology : psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud , individual psychology - Alfred Adler , analytical psychology - Karl Gustav Jung )
• The processes of perception, formation and processing of images and the results of these processes ( Gestalt psychology - Max Wertheimer )
• Problems of human existence ( humanistic psychology , including existential psychology - Abraham Maslow , Carl Rogers , Victor Frankl , Rollo May , ontopsychology - Antonio Meneghetti and positive psychology - Martin Seligman )
• Information processing processes by the information system “brain”, human cognitive abilities ( cognitive psychology - George Miller , Herbert Simon , Allen Newell , Noam Chomsky , David Green, John Sweets and others)
• According to V. Mazilov, it is advisable to consider the inner world of a person to be the subject of scientific psychology ^[3]

The object of psychology is a combination of various carriers of psychic phenomena, the main of which are behavior , activity, and relationships among people in large and small social groups.

• learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena;
• learn to manage them;
• use the knowledge gained to improve the effectiveness of various branches of practice;
• be the theoretical basis of the practice of psychological service.

• methods of collecting information ( self-observation , observation, study of the results of activity, study of documents, survey method, test method, experiment, biographical method) (see psychometrics );

• data processing methods ( statistical analysis , other mathematical methods) ^[4] ;

• information technologies (computational hardware and software specialized for collecting, entering and processing psychological data; statistical data processing programs; methods of processing big data );

• methods of psychological influence (discussion, training, formative experiment, persuasion, suggestion, relaxation, and others);

• methods of electrophysiology of the brain and individual neurons, based on electroencephalography , tomography , magnetic encephalography , infrared spectroscopy at wavelengths of 700–900 nanometers, for which the human body is permeable.

Modern psychology is a multi-disciplinary science. Branches of psychology are relatively independent developing directions. They are conventionally divided into fundamental (general) and applied (special).

Fundamental branches of psychology are of general importance in the study of mental phenomena. This is the basis that unites all branches of psychology, and also serves as the basis for their development. Fundamental branches, as a rule, are called by the term “ general psychology ”. The basic concepts that general psychology considers are: cognitive processes ( sensations , perceptions , attention , ideas , memory , imagination , thinking , speech , emotions , will , reflection ), mental properties ( abilities , motivation , temperament , character ) and mental states . The emergence of general psychology as a fundamental branch is associated with the name of S. L. Rubinstein , who in 1940 created the fundamental work “Foundations of General Psychology”.

Applied are called branches of psychology that are of practical importance. Such industries include, for example, educational psychology , developmental psychology , differential psychology , social psychology , political psychology , clinical psychology , legal psychology , economic psychology , military psychology , art psychology, creativity psychology, sports psychology, and many others ^[5] .

The position of psychology is associated with two diverse traditions. The first is her desire to become a natural science discipline, the second - the desire to take the place of everyday psychology. As V. V. Petukhov and V. V. Stolin point out, both goals are fundamentally unattainable. In comparison with everyday psychology, scientific is a special discipline with its conceptual and methodological apparatus for the study of mental life. At the same time, psychology has peculiarities related to the fact that the object of its study is capable of internal reflection of its states. Scientific and everyday psychology retain fundamental differences, but are interconnected with each other ^[6] .

Psychology has a connection with both the natural and the humanities. The link between psychology and the natural sciences is based on the biological nature of man. However, the peculiarity of a person is that he is a social being, whose mental phenomena are largely socially determined. For this reason, psychology is usually attributed to the humanities ^[7] . A distinctive feature of psychology is the coincidence of the object and subject of cognition, that is, the need to use reflection as a tool for the study.

Relationship between psychology and modern sciences

Philosophy

Questions of psychology have long been considered in the framework of philosophy . Only in the middle of the XIX century, psychology became an independent science. But separated from philosophy, she continues to maintain a close relationship with her. Currently, there are scientific problems that are studied both by psychology and philosophy. These problems include the concepts of personal meaning, goals of life , worldview , political views, moral values, and more. Psychology uses experimental methods to test hypotheses. However, there are issues that can not be solved experimentally. In such cases, psychologists can refer to philosophy. Among the philosophical and psychological problems are the problems of the essence and origin of human consciousness, the nature of higher forms of human thinking, the influence of society on a person and a person on society ^[8] .

A. G. Maklakov indicates that, although for a long time philosophy was divided into materialistic and idealistic, now there is a rapprochement between these currents of philosophy, and it is possible to talk about the same significance for the psychology of both directions. Materialistic philosophy is fundamental when considering the problems of the activity and origin of higher mental functions. Idealistic philosophy, according to Maklakov, poses such problems as responsibility , conscience , meaning of life, spirituality . Maklakov notes that the use in psychology of both directions (materialistic and idealistic) "most fully reflects the dual essence of man, his biosocial nature" ^[8] .

According to A. G. Maklakov, the problems that can be solved only with the cooperation of psychologists and philosophers include the problems of epistemology ^[8] . Some theories of psychology have a psychological and philosophical character, such as the theoretical work of neo-Freudians. For example, the work of Erich Fromm is used in psychology, sociology and philosophy.

Sociology

Psychology is closely related to the social sciences. It has much in common with sociology. Sociology borrows from social psychology methods of studying personality and human relationships. Psychology makes extensive use of such methods of collecting scientific information as polling and questioning, which are traditionally considered to be sociological. There are various concepts that psychology and sociology take over from each other. Psychologists and sociologists jointly solve many problems, such as national psychology, psychology of politics, problems of socialization and social attitudes ^[9] .

Economy

Recently, economic psychology has become important in the field of psychological science on the economic behavior and mental processes associated with the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods and services . The subject of study of economic psychology are the psychological laws of economic behavior and interaction between people as subjects of economic relations. It turned out that the economic behavior of people is in many respects far from rational, which was previously considered as the only correct one in studying economics, that this behavior is essentially determined by mental factors.

In 2002, for research, carried out jointly with Amos Tversky and other authors, to establish the cognitive basis for common human errors in using heuristics , as well as for developing the theory of prospects for the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economics “for applying psychological methodology in economics, in particular - the study of the formation of judgments and decision-making under uncertainty "(with B. Smith ), became Daniel Kahneman, despite the fact that the study was conducted as a psychologist , not to to the economist .

The Nobel Prize in Economics in 2017 for his contribution to the field of behavioral economics was Richard Thaler .

History

Historical sciences are also important for psychology. An example of the synthesis of history and psychology is the theory of cultural-historical development of higher mental forms of L. S. Vygotsky . The use of the historical method in psychology consists in the study of the phylogenetic and ontogenetic development of mental phenomena from elementary to complex forms. The basis of the convergence of history and psychology is the concept that modern man is a product of human development ^[10] . Questions of the historical development of psychological phenomena are also studied by evolutionary psychology .

Biological Sciences

Psychology is closely related to the biological sciences , including medicine . The use in psychology of the achievements of these sciences is based on the fact that most psychic phenomena and mental processes are physiologically conditioned. The facts of mutual influence of the mental and somatic on each other are known. Mental state affects the physiological. Peculiarities of the psyche can contribute to the development of certain diseases (for example, psychosomatic ). Feedback is that many diseases affect the mental state ^[11] .

Psychology is especially closely related to neurology and psychiatry. A significant number of scientists who have made a significant contribution to psychology in their main profession were neurologists and psychiatrists. It was the study of diseases of the nervous system and mental disorders that enabled them to identify the essential features of the structure and functioning of the psyche and its relations with the structure and functioning of the nervous system, which in a normal state remain hidden or difficult to detect. For the study of related issues with psychiatry in psychology identified such branches as pathopsychology , clinical psychology , psychosomatics , psychology of abnormal development ; with neurobiology , anatomy and physiology of the central nervous system , branches - neuropsychology , psychophysiology . Significant progress in the development of genetics has led to the creation of psychogenetics , within the framework of which research is being carried out on the basis of sequencing of the human genome , making it possible to reveal the influence of genetic effects on the functioning of the psyche.

Neuropsychology

The emergence of non-invasive (non-destructive) research methods, both passive ( functional magnetic resonance imaging , fMRI) and active ( transcranial magnetic stimulation ), caused a real revolution in psychology. With the help of these methods, psychologists for the first time got the opportunity to carry out reproducible studies of such previously difficult to objectively study phenomena such as consciousness , dreams , free will , etc.

Other Sciences

Psychology actively interacts with a large number of other sciences and branches of scientific knowledge. This interaction is manifested primarily in the creation of branches of psychology, which are adjacent, applied branches of scientific knowledge, exploring the laws of objective reality from the perspective of the subject of psychology. For example, the connection of psychology with anthropology is established due to the existence of such a fundamental branch of psychology as the psychology of personality ; with pedagogy - pedagogical psychology ; defectology - in the existence of a special psychology ; linguistics , interacting with psychology, gives rise to psycholinguistics ; with jurisprudence the connection is clearly manifested in such branches of psychology as judicial psychology , victim psychology , criminal psychology , pathopsychology, crime investigation psychology .

Discussions about the scientific status of psychology

The status of the scientific nature of psychology for a long time has been the subject of extensive discussions. As A. Yurevich , Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Deputy Director of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences noted in 2005, parasitizing on the complexity of ^{[ style ]} and the successes of modern psychology, under the pressure of "here-and-now-psychology" ^{[The style ] of the} modern man in the street, the widely spread postmodernist ideology, parascientific doctrines constantly invade its territory ^[12] .

Most experts agree that at the present time, psychology is an accumulation of various facts, theories, assumptions, methodologies and goals. There is no consensus among psychologists as to how scientific modern psychology is, nor about whether it can be scientific in principle. Even among those who consider it possible to bring psychology to scientific standards, there is no agreement on what type of science it should be attributed to.

The American psychologist B. R. Hegenkhan in 2009 indicated that scientists give a number of answers to the question of whether psychology is a science, and the content of these answers depends on who gives them and what aspect of psychology implies:

• no, it represents doparadigmatic discipline;
• no, its subject matter is too subjective to succumb to scientific research;
• no, but it can and should become a science;
• both yes and no: it is partly science, and partly not;
• Yes, psychology is a scientific discipline using a scientific methodology.

The scientific status of psychology is the subject of controversy in the modern debate between modernism and postmodernism ^[13] .

Due to the high complexity of the subject matter, for many psychological theories it is difficult to apply the Popper criterion , since they use ambiguous formulations and overlapping concepts, which makes it difficult to apply them. Although for a number of such theories the concept of scientific rigor does not coincide with that used in deterministic theories, they nevertheless prove useful. Examples are the theories of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler . Popper himself believed that the proof of unscientific and metaphysical theory does not necessarily make such a theory useless and meaningless ^[14] .

TV Kornilova and S. D. Smirnov noted that because of the parallel existence in psychology of many paradigms and the constant emergence of new mini-paradigms, the effect of permanent crisis and permanent revolution in this science is created, which, as noted above, is determined by the complexity of the subject research. This fact is used by a number of researchers as a basis for statements that psychology is not a developed science or is not a science at all. So far, in psychology, there has not been any complete and clear separation between scientific, near science and pseudoscientific knowledge. Unlike astronomy and chemistry, which completely dissociate themselves from astrology and alchemy , psychology shows much greater tolerance for parapsychology and often assimilates the experience of everyday psychology ^[15] .

The domestic psychologist S. L. Rubinstein at the time of 1940 described psychology from a historical point of view as follows ^[16] :

“Psychology is a very old, and still very young science, - it has a 1000-year past behind it, and, nevertheless, it is still in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline is calculated only for decades, but its main subject matter is its philosophical thought since philosophy exists. Years of experimental research were preceded by centuries of philosophical reflection, on the one hand, and millennia of practical knowledge of people, on the other. ”

Antiquity

Early ancient authors in their works often paid attention to the problems of the nature of man , his soul and mind. So far, from the entire spectrum of the views of the ancient authors, only the Hippocratic temperaments classification reached, although many ideas of Plato influenced the development of the philosophical foundations of the psyche, in particular, the concept of man as a being torn by internal conflict of motives, was reflected in psychoanalytic ideas about the structure of personality. Like most other sciences, the “grandfather” of psychology can rightly be called Aristotle , who in his treatise On the Soul gave a detailed analysis of the subject of psychological research.

Middle Ages

Medieval works on psychology in Europe were generally focused on matters of faith and reason, to a marked degree Christian philosophers, starting with Thomas Aquinas , borrowed the ideas of Aristotle . From Eastern scholars, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) paid attention to psychological issues.

New time

In 1590, Rudolf Goklenius first uses the term “psychology” to refer to the science of the soul. His contemporary Otto Kasman is considered the first to use the term “psychology” in the modern scientific sense.

Representatives of the new time (for example, Rene Descartes ) believed that the body and soul have a different nature - this was a new look at the problem of psychology. “Soul and body live and act according to different laws and have a different nature,” wrote Descartes.

XVIII century

On August 3, 1795, British royal astronomer Neville Maskelyn first discovered the mistakes made by his assistant, David Kinnbrook, in the calculations. Kinnbrook was dismissed, but the error analysis carried out by another astronomer, Friedrich Bezel , marked the beginning of a systematic study of reaction time , individual differences and mental chronometry as criteria for cognitive processes.

XIX century

The nineteenth century was for psychology a century of its gradual birth as a scientific discipline, highlighting the relevant areas of philosophy , medicine , and exact sciences .

Ernst Weber explores the dependence of the intensity of sensations on the intensity of the stimuli that trigger them.

Hermann Helmholtz explores the nervous system as the basis of the psyche, formulates ideas about the "automatic reasoning" underlying the perception of space .

However, the main name in the history of the design of psychology as a science is Wilhelm Wundt . A pupil and ally of Helmholtz, Wundt in 1879 opened the first psychological laboratory in the world, in which he studied the phenomena of consciousness by introspection . This year is considered the year of birth of psychology as a science.

XX century

First decades

The very beginning of the twentieth century was marked by rapid growth in several directions. On the one hand, psychoanalysis is actively developing - a school of psychotherapy, originally based on the work of Sigmund Freud , in which a person was described as a system of several independent personality structures fighting each other - It ( Id ), I ( Ego ), Super-I ( Superego ). In this conflict, It represents the biological human needs, of which psychoanalysts have focused on sexual needs, and the Super-I represents the demands of society, culture. The development of this school has had a strong influence not only on practice, but also on science, forcing scientists to pay attention to phenomena that are beyond consciousness, to unconscious determinants of mental activity. The ideas of Sigmund Freud 's psychoanalysis were criticized, developed and expanded in various areas of depth psychology, mostly by Freud's former colleagues, such as Alfred Adler (individual psychology) and Karl Gustav Jung (analytical psychology), and later by neo-Freudists such as Erich Fromm , Karen Horney , Harry Stack Sullivan , Jacques Lacan and others.

In the United States , behavioralism is actively developing - the school of psychology founded by J. Watson , based on the works of I. P. Pavlov and E. Thorndike on learning. Behaviorists followed the positivist demand to exclude from the consideration of science all phenomena except those directly observable. A person was considered as a “black box”, which includes stimuli, and out - reactions to these stimuli.

Gestalt psychology is developing in Germany ( M. Wertheimer , K. Koffka , V. Köhler ), which is a further development on the way to the study of the phenomena of consciousness. Unlike their predecessors, the gestaltists did not try to isolate the "bricks" from which consciousness was built, on the contrary, they considered their basic law that "the whole is always greater than the sum of its constituent parts". Within this school, many phenomena of perception and thinking were discovered.

The First World War stimulated the development of applied aspects of psychology, primarily psychodiagnostics , since the army needed a means of assessing the capabilities of the soldiers. Tests of intelligence are developed ( A. Binet , R. Yerks ).

1930-1940s

In Germany, the Nazis came to power, as a result of which many psychologists (among whom there were quite a few Jews) were forced to emigrate to the USA. Gestalt psychology practically ceases to exist, however K. Levin and the followers of Gestalt become the main figures of American social psychology . Nevertheless, such thinkers as Karl Jung and Martin Heidegger remain to work in Nazi Germany. Jung continues to develop his doctrine of the collective unconscious, in 1934, he released one of his fundamental works, Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious .

Among the behaviorists, on the one hand, attempts begin, preserving the natural science foundation, to introduce intrapsychic variables ( E. Tolman , C. Hull ) to the explanation of behavior, on the other hand, B. F. Skinner develops “radical behaviorism”, developing the theory of operant learning .

J. Piaget publishes the results of thinking studies, in which similar types of errors were found in children of the same age, which are practically not found in older children.

Psychological and psychotherapeutic practice is actively developing. Various areas of depth psychology continued to develop, forms of psychotherapy alternative to psychoanalysis ( gestalt therapy , etc.) are being formed.

L. S. Vygotsky formulates the basic principles of cultural-historical psychology based on Marxism . Within this framework, it was postulated that it was necessary to study a person directly in the process of development, proceeding under the influence of history and culture. On the basis of this direction, a theory of activity was subsequently constructed.

The decree “ On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education ” (1936), which eliminated pedology , practically froze the development of psychological science in the USSR for several decades.

The Second World War causes a new surge in the activity of psychologists in the field of applied technologies. Special attention is paid to social psychology and ergonomics.

1950-1960s

Эти десятилетия являются эпохой расцвета психологической науки, активного роста во множестве направлений. В современных учебниках большая часть материала посвящена экспериментам и исследованиям, проведённым именно в этот период.

Теория бихевиоризма не могла дать ответы на многие вопросы, которые ставила перед наукой развивающаяся промышленность и военные технологии. Разработка максимально эффективных форм представления информации на пультах управления сложными устройствами и другие задачи требовали активного изучения не только простых реакций на стимулы, но сложных механизмов, лежащих в основе восприятия. Вследствие подобного запроса начинает развиваться область, которая позднее получит название « когнитивная психология » — ведёт свои исследования механизмов внимания Д. Бродбент , публикует знаменитую статью про « Магическое число семь плюс-минус два » Дж. Миллер .

Активно развиваются техники модификации поведения на основе теории бихевиоризма. Дж. Вольпе разрабатывает технику систематической десенсибилизации , которая оказывается весьма эффективной в лечении различных видов фобий.

На фоне этого появляются гуманистическая психология и психотерапия как попытка преодолеть сведение человека к автомату или животному (теории бихевиоризма и психоанализа). Гуманистические психологи предлагают рассматривать человека как существо более высокого уровня, наделённое свободой воли и стремлением к самоактуализации .

Происходит бурное развитие социальной психологии в США . Проводят свои знаменитые исследования Соломон Аш , Музафер Шериф , Стэнли Милгрэм , Леон Фестингер и другие известные психологи.

В конце 60-х годов вместе с ростом популярности Нью-Эйдж -культуры психология испытывает сильное влияние со стороны мистики ; на волне успеха исследований психоделических веществ и новых областей сознания возникает трансперсональная психология , а также развивается ряд школ тренингов личностного роста, из которых некоторые со временем превращаются в религиозные культы : ( саентология , лайфспринг ).

В 1966 году создаются факультеты психологии в МГУ и ЛГУ , а также кафедра психиатрии и медицинской психологии в РУДН , что демонстрирует прекращение 30-летних гонений на психологов. В заметной степени это было связано с появлением спроса на психологов на производстве и в армии. В СССР активно развивается инженерная психология . Однако в силу объективных причин отечественной психологии приходится оставаться крайне идеологизированной в соответствии с марксистско-ленинскими построениями, — данное обстоятельство придаст её дальнейшему развитию определённую специфику. И по сей день марксистско-ленинские теории (см. теорию отражения ) так или иначе сохраняют влияние на программу подготовки специалистов-психологов в некоторых вузах России .

1970—1980-е годы

Происходит бурный рост когнитивной психологии, которая шла по пути постепенного опровержения своих исходных постулатов о сущности человеческой психики как системы переработки информации с ограниченной пропускной способностью. В этот период психология устанавливает активные связи с лингвистикой, что стало неизбежным после « хомскианской революции »; возникает психолингвистика .

В остальных областях психологии происходит стабильный рост и накопление знаний, вместе с тем вновь обостряется ощущение «вечного кризиса» психологической мысли, так как ни одно из действующих направлений не даёт надежды на скорое появление действительно полной и объясняющей поведение человека теории.

Modernity

В настоящее время важное значение в изучении психики приобрели методы, базирующиеся на различных видах томографии. Применение томографии позволяет определить структуру и исследовать функционирование нейронных сетей . Для изучения связей функционирования психики для различных видов психической деятельности при различных условиях со структурой и функционированием мозга применяется функциональная магнитно-резонансная томография , которая позволяет определить активацию областей головного мозга в ходе нормального его функционирования (см., например, ^[17] ). Для изучения психических процессов на молекулярном уровне, в том числе метаболизм , транспорт веществ, лиганд-рецепторные взаимодействия, экспрессия генов и т. д. применяется позитронно-эмиссионная томография (ПЭТ) (см., например, ^[18] ). В частности ПЭТ применяется для исследований участия различных нейромедиаторов в нейрофизиологических и психических процессах.

Психолог — человек с психологическим образованием, выполняющий профессиональную деятельность в области психологии как науки, психологической помощи или прикладных исследований.

Следует обратить внимание на то, что деятельность психологов в Российской Федерации не является лицензируемой, а наименование «психолог» — защищённым законодательством званием.

То или иное формальное право называть себя психологами имеют люди, получившие профильное психологическое образование следующих форм и ступеней:

• специалитет (5 лет обучения на дневном отделении; 6 лет на заочном или вечернем отделении; 3,5 года обучения при условии наличия другого высшего образования (то есть второе высшее образование);
• бакалавриат (4 года обучения на дневном отделении; 5 лет на вечернем или заочном отделении);
• магистратура (2 года дополнительной подготовки при условии наличия квалификации бакалавра или специалиста);
• профессиональная переподготовка (девятимесячные курсы).

Американский психолог Стивен Пинкер отмечает, что психологи зачастую игнорируют содержание эмоций и не принимают во внимание способность разума обращаться с различными категориями последних по-разному. Так, по мнению Пинкера, теории памяти и мышления не отличают соображения о людях от соображений о камнях или зданиях; теории эмоций не видят разницы между страхом и гневом, ревностью и любовью; теории социальных отношений не проводят различий между семьей, друзьями, врагами и незнакомцами. Пинкер указывает, что такие темы, как любовь, ненависть, еда, секс, статус, власть, зависть, дружба, религия и др., практически не затрагиваются в учебниках психологии ^[19] .

Одним из самых ярких и авторитетных критиков психологии был русский физиолог, нобелевский лауреат Иван Павлов . Изучая работу нервной системы, Иван Павлов всегда стремился изучать её строгими методами естествознания, как он сам неоднократно выражался, именно «строго объективно». Академик критиковал психологию как науку из-за отсутствия методов, чётких категорий и понятий . Например, в одной из своих лекций И. П. Павлов так писал о препятствиях, связанных с психологической наукой ^[20] :

Естествознание, в лице физиолога, изучающего высшие отделы центральной нервной системы, можно сказать, бессознательно, незаметно для себя, подчинилось ходячей манере — думать о сложной деятельности животных по сравнению с собой, принимая для их действия те же внутренние причины, которые мы чувствуем и признаем в себе. Итак, физиолог в данном пункте оставил твердую естественнонаучную позицию. И что он приобрел вместо нее? Он взял понятия из того отдела человеческого умственного интереса, который, несмотря на свою наибольшую давность, по заявлению самих его деятелей, не получил еще до сих пор права называться наукой. Психология, как познание внутреннего мира человека, до сих пор сама ищет свои истинные методы. А физиолог взял на себя неблагодарную задачу гадать о внутреннем мире животных. После этого нетрудно понять, что изучение сложнейшей нервной деятельности высших животных почти не трогается с места. А этому исследованию — уже около ста лет.

Мы совершенно запрещали себе (в лаборатории был объявлен даже штраф) употреблять такие психологические выражения, как собака догадалась, захотела, пожелала и т. д. Наконец, нам все явления, которыми мы интересовались, стали представляться в другом виде ^[21] .

• УДК 15
• Государственный рубрикатор научно-технической информации (ГРНТИ) (по состоянию на 2001 год): 15 Психология

• Центр Брока
• Сеть пассивного режима работы мозга — дефолтная нейронная сеть

• Гальперин, П. Я. Введение в психологию. — Москва : Книжный дом «Университет» , 2007 .
• Гиппенрейтер, Ю. Б. Введение в общую психологию. Курс лекций . — Москва : АСТ , 2008 год. - 352 s. - 7000 copies — ISBN 978-5-17-049383-8 .
• Годфруа, Ж . Что такое психология = Les chemins de la psychologie. В 2-х т. — Москва : Мир , 2005 . - 772 s. - 1000 copies — ISBN 5-03-003697-0 .
• Лурия, А. Р. Лекции по общей психологии. — Санкт-Петербург : Питер , 2003 .
• Общая психология. В 7-ми т. — Москва : Академия , 2007 .
• Петровский, А. В ., Ярошевский, М. Г. Основы теоретической психологии. — Москва : Инфра-М, 1999 .
• Рубинштейн, С. Л. Основы общей психологии . — Санкт-Петербург : Питер , 2007 .
• Носов, Н. Виртуальная психология. — М.: «Аграф», 2000.- 432 с.
• Зинченко, В. П. Психология на качелях между душой и телом // Знание. Понимание. Умение . — 2005. — № 3 . — С. 151—169 .
• Кольцова, В. А. , Олейник, Ю. Н. Психологи в годы Великой Отечественной войны: подвиг на века // Знание. Понимание. Умение . — 2005. — № 2 . — С. 40—51 .
• Карандашёв, В. Н. Психология: Введение в профессию. — Академия , Смысл , 2009. — 512 с. - 3000 copies — ISBN 978-5-7695-6630-1 , ISBN 978-5-89357-227-8 .
• Маклаков, А. Г. Общая психология. — СПб: Питер, 2002. — 592 с. — ISBN 5-242-00062-5 .
• Фромм, Э. Душа человека. — М.: Республика, 1992. — 430 с. — ISBN 5-250-01511-5
• Парыгин, Б. Д. Общественное настроение / Б. Д. Парыгин. — М.: Мысль, 1966. — 328 с.
• Hergenhahn, BR An Introduction to the History of Psychology . — 6th ed. — Wadsworth Publishing, Cengage Learning, 2009. — 752 p. — ISBN 978-0-495-50621-8 .
• Выготский Л. С. Педагогическая психология. М.: Педагогика, 1991.

• Stephen Pinker. Clear sheet. Human nature. Who and why refuses to recognize her today = Steven Pinker. The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. - M .: Alpina Non-fiction, 2018. - 608 p. - ISBN 978-5-91671-783-9 .

Рецензируемые научные журналы

• Журнал «Вопросы психологии» (рус.) — научный психологический журнал
• Журнал «Психологические исследования» (рус.) — научный электронный журнал, включен в Перечень ВАК
• «Психологическая наука и образование» (недоступная ссылка) (рус.) — профессиональный журнал по психологии образования, рекомендованный ВАК
• Журнал «Культурно-историческая психология» — международное научное издание для психологов, историков и методологов науки и специалистов в смежных областях фундаментального и прикладного человекознания; включен в Перечень ВАК

Справочники

• Психологический словарь
• Словарь психологических терминов
• Национальная психологическая энциклопедия — сайт НЭС

Miscellaneous

• Путеводитель по ресурсам Интернета. Психология / Ульяновский государственный университет, Науч. б-ка УлГУ; status Е. И. Мулявко; by ed. Е. В. Кураковой. — Ульяновск: УлГУ, 2010. — 18 с.
• Несколько книг по психологии
• Библиотека книг по психологии
•   — «Сообщество психологов-профессионалов» в Живом Журнале